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- THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 HAD ESTABLISHED THAT NATIONALISM WAS A POWERFUL FORCE. THEIR FAILURE MADE IT CLEAR THAT SEPARATE REVOLTS WERE NOT ENOUGH TO OBTAIN UNIFICATION. ESPECIALLY AMONG THE MIDDLE CLASS, NATIONALIST FEELINGS BECAME INTENSE.
THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
- AFTER THE FAILURE OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848, MOST LEADERS IN ITALY FAVORED SOME SORT OF UNIFIED NATION. THEY WERE DIVIDED ON HOW TO ACCOMPLISH THIS UNIFICATION:
- THE CHURCH AND MANY CATHOLICS FAVORED A FEDERATION OF ITALIAN STATES HEADED BY THE POPE.
- LIBERALS WANTED AN ITALIAN REPUBLIC.
- OTHERS FAVORED A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY UNDER THE KING OF SARDINIA, VICTOR EMMANUEL II.
- THE POWER BEHIND THE THRONE OF KING VICTOR EMMANUEL WAS THE "ARCHITECT OF ITALIAN UNITY," COUNT CAMILLO CAVOUR. PIEDMONT, AMONG THE ITALIAN STATES, WAS TO PLAY A LEADING ROLE IN RESORGIMENTO. IN 1852, COUNT CAVOUR BECAME PRIME MINISTER OF THIS STATE.
- CAVOUR, WAS A MASTER OF "REALPOLITIK" - (POLITICS OF PRACTICAL REALITY) UNLIKE MAZZINI, WHO WAS TOO MUCH OF AN IDEALIST, AND GARIBALDI WHO WAS TOO MUCH OF A ROMANTIC REVOLUTIONARY.
- CAVOUR DISLIKED ABSOLUTISM AND BELIEVED IN PARLIAMENTARY CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT.
- CAVOUR ENTERED A SECRET ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE, AND THEN BAITED AUSTRIA, THE PRINCIPAL OBSTACLE TO ITALIAN UNIFICATION, INTO A WAR IN 1859.
- CAVOUR HAD PUSHED FOR PIEDMONT'S PARTICIPATION IN THE CRIMEAN WAR AS AN ALLY OF FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN AGAINST RUSSIA.
- THIS ACTION HELPED OBTAIN COOPERATION FROM NAPOLEON III FOR THE COMING WAR WITH AUSTRIA.
- FRANCE ENTERED THE WAR ON PIEDMONT'S SIDE. THE WAR ENDED IN A TRUCE ALTHOUGH AUSTRIA HAD SUFFERED SERIOUS SETBACKS. PIEDMONT, HOWEVER, WAS ABLE TO OBTAIN LOMBARDY FROM AUSTRIA.
- BY 1860 MANY OF THE SMALL ITALIAN STATES REVOLTED AGAINST AUSTRIA AND BY PLEBISCITE JOINED PIEDMONT.
- ACTING INDEPENDENTLY, GARIBALDI LED HIS 1,000 "RED SHIRTS" IN CONQUERING THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES (SICILY AND NAPLES), IN 1860.
- GARIBALDI RASHLY WANTED TO MARCH ON ROME. THIS THREAT TO THE POPE WOULD HAVE PROVOKED THE FRENCH INTO FIGHTING FOR THE POPE.
- CAVOUR WISELY RUSHED TROOPS TO NAPLES TO BLOCK GARIBALDI FROM HIS MARCH, AND TO PROTECT THE REVOLUTION.
- CAVOUR SHREWDLY WAITED FOR PEOPLE IN THE PAPAL STATES TO REVOLT, AND THEN UNDER THE PRETEXT OF RESTORING ORDER MOVED INTO MUCH OF THE PAPAL STATES EXCEPT ROME. THUS HE WAS ABLE TO PEACEFULLY STOP GARIBALDI.
- THE KINGDOM OF ITALY WAS PROCLAIMED ON MARCH 17, 1861 WITH VICTOR EMMANUEL II ITS FIRST KING. NOW ONLY VENEZIA AND ROME WERE LACKING FROM COMPLETING ITALIAN UNITY. IN 1866, AFTER PRUSSIA'S VICTORY OVER AUSTRIA AT SADOWA, VENEZIA WAS SEIZED BY ITALY.
- ROME WAS FINALLY ADDED TO ITALY IN 1870 WHEN FRENCH TROOPS, PROTECTING THE POPE, WERE WITHDRAWN TO FIGHT IN THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. ROME THEN BECAME THE CAPITAL OF ITALY.
- POLITICAL/ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE NEW NATION.
- UNITED ITALY BEGAN WITH A LIBERAL CONSTITUTION BASED ON PIEDMONT'S ADMINISTRATION AND LAW.
- ITALY WAS POOR; OVERWHELMINGLY AGRICULTURAL; HAD NO COAL OR IRON; AND 3/4 OF THE POPULATION WAS ILLITERATE.
- ITALY LAGGED IN SCHOOLS, RAILWAYS AND ROADS COMPARED TO OTHER MAJOR EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
- SOUTHERN POVERTY AND TRADITIONS OF LOCAL PATRONAGE AND CORRUPTION HOBBLED THE NEW REGINE.
- THE POPES FELT THEY WERE PRISONERS OF THE NEW ITALIAN STATE EVEN THOUGH BY THE LAW OF GUARANTEES FULL INDEPENDENCE WAS ASSURED THE VATICAN.
A. POPE PUIS IX FORBADE CATHOLICS TO TAKE PART IN NATIONAL ELECTIONS.
THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
- AS YOU RECALL, NAPOLEON HAD BROUGHT A WAVE OF NATIONALISM TO THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION.
- AUSTRIA, UNDER METTERNICH, AND PRUSSIA HAD BECOME THE TWO DOMINANT STATES OF THE CONFEDERATION.
- THE REVOLUTIONS DURING THE AGE OF METTERNICH FAILED TO ACHIEVE GERMAN UNITY BUT THE SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM REMAINED HIGH.
- PRUSSIA, NOT AUSTRIA, HAD THE BETTER CHANCE OF UNITING THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION.
- BY 1853, MOST GERMAN STATES BELONGED TO THE ZOLLVEREIN.
- AUSTRIA'S SETBACK IN ITALY IN 1859 TO PIEDMONT AND FRANCE STRENGTHENED PRUSSIA AT THE EXPENSE OF AUSTRIA.
- THE RULE OF KING WILLIAM I OF PRUSSIA WAS A TURNING POINT FOR PRUSSIA.
- IN 1858, WILLIAM I BECAME THE PRUSSIAN KING.
- HE WISELY APPOINTED THE MOST SKILLFUL DIPLOMAT AND WARRIOR OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY, OTTO VON BISMARCK, AS HIS PRIME MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
- BISMARCK WAS TO BE THE CHIEF ARCHITECT OF A UNIFIED GERMAN NATION.
- HE WAS THE MASTER PRACTITIONER OF REALPOLITIK AND HAD A GENIUS FOR USING THE RIGHT BLEND OF DIPLOMACY AND MILITARY MIGHT.
- SAID BISMARCK, "THE GREAT QUESTIONS OF THE DAY WILL NOT BE DECIDED BY SPEECHES AND MAJORITY RESOLUTIONS - THEREIN LAY THE WEAKNESS OF 1848 AND 1849 - BUT BY BLOOD AND IRON."
- LIKE CAVOUR, HE SAW MORE CLEARLY THAN HIS KING THAT NATIONALISM COULD BE USED AGAINST REVOLUTION AND MADE FOREIGN POLICY THE MAJOR EMPHASIS OF HIS PROGRAM.
- BISMARCK, A CONSERVATIVE PRUSSIAN JUNKER, DID NOT BELIEVE IN A LIBERAL CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT SO HE DISMISSED THE PARLIAMENT AND RULED WITHOUT IT.
- HE MADE THE PRUSSIAN ARMY INTO A MODERN, EFFICIENT WAR MACHINE BY EXPANDING IT AND EQUIPPING IT WITH THE LATEST WEAPONS.
- HIS STRATEGY TO UNIFY GERMANY INVOLVED THREE QUICK MILITARY STEPS:
1) WAR WITH DENMARK
IN 1864, IN AN ALLIANCE WITH AUSTRIA, HE DEFEATED DENMARK TO THE NORTH OF PRUSSIA, AND SHARED THE SPOILS OF WAR WITH AUSTRIA WHICH WERE TWO STATES, I.E., SCHLESWIG - HOLSTEIN.
- THIS IN REALITY WAS A TRAP LAID FOR AUSTRIA BY PRUSSIA BECAUSE WHILE SCHLESWIG WAS PLACED UNDER PRUSSIAN CONTROL, HOLSTEIN, SURROUNDED BY PRUSSIAN TROOPS, WAS TO BE ADMINISTERED BY AUSTRIA.
2) WAR WITH AUSTRIA
- IN 1866, AFTER AN ALLIANCE WITH ITALY, AND A TREATY WITH FRANCE, HE DECLARED WAR ON AUSTRIA, OVER THE ISSUE OF GOVERNING THE CAPTURED DANISH TERRITORY.
- TO THE SURPRISE OF THE WORLD, HE QUICKLY DEFEATED AUSTRIA AND THE GERMAN STATES THAT BACKED HER AT THE BATTLE OF SADOWA AND THE WAR ENDED IN JUST SEVEN WEEKS.
- RESULTS OF THE AUSTRIA-PRUSSIAN WAR:
- AGAINST THE WISHES OF THE KINGS AND MANY OF THE MILITARY, BISMARCK SHOWED EXTREME LENIENCY TO AUSTRIA.
1) AUSTRIA SURRENDERED NO TERRITORY EXCEPT HOLSTEIN.
2) AUSTRIA HAD TO PAY ONLY A SMALL INDEMNITY TO PRUSSIA.
3) PRUSSIA DID, HOWEVER, ANNEX CERTAIN GERMAN STATES THAT HAD SIDED WITH AUSTRIA.
4) THIS WAR ENDED ANY HOPE OF AUSTRIA'S DOMINATION OF THE GERMAN STATES.
5) SOUTHERN GERMAN STATES, WHILE STILL NOT JOINING PRUSSIA, CONCLUDED A MILITARY ALLIANCE WITH PRUSSIA IN CASE OF FRENCH AGGRESSION.
- THIS NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION REPRESENTED AN ENORMOUS EXPANSION OF PRUSSIAN POWER.
- IT ALSO REPRESENTED A GREAT STEP TOWARD UNIFICATION ALTHOUGH SOUTHERN STATES LED BY BAVARIA STILL REMAINED OPPOSED TO THE "PRUSSIANIZATION" OF GERMANY.
3) WAR WITH FRANCE
IN 1870, BISMARCK'S THIRD AND FINAL STEP TOWARD GERMAN UNIFICATION CAME WHEN HE PROVOKED A WAR WITH FRANCE, THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.
- BISMARCK DELIBERATELY STIRRED UP ANTI-GERMAN FEELING ON THE PART OF THE ALARMED FRENCH, WHICH HAD THE EFFECT OF CAUSING HOLD-OUT GERMAN STATES TO ALLY WITH PRUSSIA.
- DURING THE CONTROVERSY OF WHETHER A HOHENZOLLERN WOULD LAWFULLY SUCCEED TO THE VACANT SPANISH THRONE, BISMARCK SAW HIS CHANCE FOR WAR WITH FRANCE.
- HE "DOCTORED" A DISPATCH SENT BY THE PRUSSIAN KING, IN REPLY TO FRANCE'S DEMANDS, AND MADE IT DELIBERATELY INSULTING TO THE FRENCH PEOPLE. THE DISPATCH WAS CALLED THE EMS TELEGRAM, AND IT SUCCEEDED IN PROVOKING A FRENCH DECLARATION OF WAR.
- IN SIX SHORT WEEKS, AFTER THE BATTLE OF SEDAN IN SEPTEMBER 1870, IN WHICH NAPOLEON III HIMSELF WAS CAPTURED, THE PRUSSIAN ARMY WAS COMPLETELY VICTORIOUS.
- PARIS WAS THEN SURROUNDED BY GERMAN TROOPS AND HELD OUT UNDER SEIZE.
- DESPITE GUERILLA HARASSMENT BY REMNANTS OF THE FRENCH ARMY, PARIS SURRENDERED AT THE END OF JANUARY, 1871.
- RESULTS OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR:
- THE TREATY WAS HARSH. FRANCE LOST TWO OF ITS TERRITORIES, ALSACE AND LORRAINE.
- FRANCE WAS DEEPLY HUMILIATED AND ANGERED BY THIS WAR AND DESIRED REVENGE. THE DESIRE FOR REVENGE AND TO WIN BACK ALSACE AND LORRAINE WOULD BE ONE OF THE MAJOR CAUSES OF W.W.I.
- IN FRANCE, NAPOLEON III AND THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE WAS OVERTHROWN, AND THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC (1870-1940) WAS ESTABLISHED.
- THE UNIFICATION OF GERMAN WAS COMPLETE ON JANUARY 18, 1871, AND WILLIAM I OF PRUSSIA BECAME KAISER (EMPEROR) OF GERMANY. THE GERMAN EMPIRE, OR SECOND REICH (THE FIRST REICH WAS SAID TO HAVE BEEN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE) WAS CHIEFLY THE WORK OF BISMARCK WHO WAS MADE CHANCELLOR.
THE ERA OF BISMARCK (1871-1890)
- THE NEW GERMAN NATION WAS NOW THE MOST POWERFUL STATE IN ALL OF EUROPE.
- GERMANY'S POPULATION WAS THE LARGEST IN EUROPE, AND THE RAPID PACE OF HER INDUSTRIALIZATION SOON CHALLENGED EVEN "THE WORKSHOP OF THE WORLD" BRITAIN.
- INTERNAL CONFLICTS OF GERMANY
- IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE SECOND REICH, BISMARCK WORRIED ABOUT THE INTERNAL DANGERS TO THE NEW NATION AND THEREFORE MOVED AGAINST TWO GROUPS HE DEEMED VULNERABLE AND DANGEROUS:
1) CATHOLIC CHURCH - THE CONFLICT WAS CALLED THE "KULTURKAMPF" (STRUGGLE FOR CIVILIZATION) AND CENTERED ON NEW LAWS REQUIRING STATE APPROVAL OF CHURCH APPOINTMENTS, ABOLITION OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS, STATE SUPERVISION OF CATHOLIC EDUCATION.
- THE KULTURKAMPF WAS NOT A SUCCESS AS CATHOLICS RALLIED TO SUPPORT THE CHURCH (PARTICULARLY IN SOUTHERN GERMANY).
- BISMARCK WAS FORCED TO MAKE PEACE WITH THE NEW POPE AND END THIS CONFLICT.
2) SOCIALISTS - BISMARCK ALSO FELT THIS GROUP WAS AN ENEMY OF THE REICH AND VULNERABLE AS WELL. IN 1878 HE CALLED FOR LAWS TO REPRESS SOCIALISM. DESPITE LEGISLATION PASSED AGAINST THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATS, THEY GREW STRONGER. THUS BISMARCK FAILED HERE AS WELL.
- FOREIGN POLICY OF GERMANY
- HAVING ACCOMPLISHED THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY BY WAR, BISMARCK, THE STATEMAN, BECAME EUROPE'S CHIEF ARCHITECT FOR PEACE.
- IN ORDER TO ENSURE PEACE, HE KNEW IT WAS NECESSARY TO KEEP FRANCE ISOLATED. FRANCE ALONE WAS NO MATCH FOR GERMANY, BUT AN ALLIANCE BETWEEN FRANCE AND RUSSIA COULD MEAN A TWO-FRONT WAR AGAINST GERMANY.
- BECAUSE OF THIS WORRY, HIS FOREIGN POLICY WAS TO STAY ON FRIENDLY TERMS WITH RUSSIA, AND ALWAYS KEEP RUSSIA AWAY FROM AN ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE.
- BISMARCK WAS CONTENT TO MAKE GERMANY A POWER ON LAND IN CENTRAL EUROPE. HE SAW NO NEED TO CHALLENGE ENGLAND ON THE SEAS, AND WAS HAPPY THAT THE BRITISH HAD THEIR POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION.
- HE WORKED TO ACHIEVE A BALANCE OF POWER THROUGHOUT EUROPE AS THE BEST WAY TO ENSURE PEACE FOR GERMANY. HE FAVORED A EUROPE BALANCED BY FIVE MAJOR POWERS: ENGLAND, FRANCE, GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND RUSSIA.
- WITH FIVE MAJOR POWERS, HE SAW THAT THE INTEREST OF GERMANY WAS TO BE ON THE SIDE OF TWO OF THE OTHER POWERS IN ORDER TO OUTNUMBER ANY THREAT BY THREE TO TWO.
- WITH FRANCE A SWORN ENEMY, AND ENGLAND IN ISOLATION, HE DECIDED TO MAKE AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND RUSSIA HIS TWO PERMANENT ALLIES.
- IN 1873, HE FORMED THE THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND RUSSIA.
- THESE COUNTRIES WERE ALL CONSERVATIVE, FAVORED A STRONG MONARCHY, AND OPPOSED DEMOCRATIC-CONSTITUTIONAL TYPE GOVERNMENTS.
- BISMARCK WORKED HARD TO KEEP RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY FROM GOING TO WAR AGAINST EACH OTHER OVER THE ISSUE OF THE BALKANS.
- IN 1879, BISMARCK FORMED A SECRET DEFENSIVE ALLIANCE WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY IN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT EMPIRE'S STABILITY IN CENTRAL EUROPE.
- IN 1882, HE ENGINEERED THE FAMOUS TRIPLE ALLIANCE AMONG GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND ITALY.
- ITALY WAS FEARFUL OF FRENCH INTENTIONS, AND THUS WILLINGLY JOINED BISMARCK.
- RUSSIA DROPPED OUT OF THE THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE OVER A DISPUTE WITH AUSTRIA-HUNGARY IN THE BALKANS, BUT BISMARCK WAS QUICK TO FORM A REINSURANCE TREATY WITH RUSSIA (1887) TO ENSURE A FRIENDLY BOND WITH THAT COUNTRY.
- BISMARCK HAD THUS SET UP A WHOLE NETWORK OF ALLIANCES, AT THE CENTER OF WHICH WAS GERMANY. HE SKILLFULLY MANAGED THIS SYSTEM AS A MASTER DIPLOMAT AND KNEW THAT IT WOULD ENSURE PEACE.
- HIS MOST OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENT WAS TO CONVINCE EUROPE THAT A NEW POWER IN CENTRAL EUROPE (GERMANY) COULD STRENGTHEN THE FOUNDATIONS OF PEACE, AND NOT THREATEN IT.
- BISMARCK NEVER ACCEPTED THE IDEA OF PAN-GERMANISM - UNITING ALL GERMAN SPEAKING PEOPLE IN ONE LARGE NATION STATE. HE KNEW THAT SUCH A MOVE WOULD UPSET THE BALANCE OF POWER, CREATE DISORDER IN EUROPE, AND LEAD TO WAR.
FRANCE (AFTER 1848)
- AFTER HIS VICTORY IN DECEMBER 1848, LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE BECAME THE ONLY PRESIDENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC (1848-1852).
- PLEBISCITE OF 1851 GAVE LOUIS NAPOLEON DICTATORIAL POWERS.
- 1852 - AMENDMENT TO THE NEW CONSTITUTION CREATES THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE (1852-1870), AND LOUIS NAPOLEON BECAME EMPEROR NAPOLEON III.
- INTERNAL REFORM OF THE SECOND EMPIRE: DURING NAPOLEON III'S FIRST TEN YEARS OF RULE, FRANCE PROSPERED MORE THAN ANY OTHER GOVERNMENT:
- RAILWAY TRACKAGE EXPANDED 5X.
- INDUSTRY RECEIVED MORE GOVERNMENT BACKING WHICH RESULTED IN EXPANSION.
- BANKING INDUSTRY REFORMED.
- TELEGRAPH INDUSTRY REFORMED.
- TELEGRAPH SYSTEM COMPLETED AND STEAMSHIP SERVICE EXPANDED.
- PARIS RESTRUCTURED AND BEAUTIFIED.
- LABOR REFORMS INITIATED.
- DESPITE THESE INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, NAPOLEON III WAS VERY AUTHORITARIAN FROM 1852-1860 GIVING LITTLE POLITICAL FREEDOM, E.G., REPRESSION OF UNIVERSITIES AND ONLY VERY LIMITED FREEDOM TO THE PRESS.
- LIBERAL CONCESSIONS WERE MADE IN THE SECOND HALF OF HIS REIGN AS A RESULT OF:
- GROWING OPPOSITION TO INTERNAL RESTRICTIONS.
- SETBACKS IN HIS FOREIGN WARS WHICH LED TO INCREASING UNPOPULARITY FOR HIM.
- EARLY FOREIGN POLICY OF THE SECOND EMPIRE:
- NAPOLEON III MAINTAINED GOOD RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND TOGETHER FOUGHT SUCCESSFULLY AGAINST RUSSIA IN THE CRIMEAN WAR WHICH WAS CONCLUDED AT THE TREATY OF PARIS (1856).
- FRANCE INTERVENED ON BEHALF OF ITALY IN 1859 AGAINST AUSTRIA. NICE AND SAVOY WERE GIVEN TO FRANCE BY PIEDMONT FOR FRANCE'S HELP AGAINST AUSTRIA.
- COLONIAL GAINS WERE MADE IN AFRICA AND ASIA.
- LATER FOREIGN POLICY OF THE SECOND EMPIRE - IT WAS NAPOLEON III'S LATER FOREIGN POLICY WHICH LED TO HIS DOWNFALL!
- NAPOLEON III INTERVENED IN MEXICO (1861-1867) IN HOPES OF ESTABLISHING A COLONIAL EMPIRE. IT BEGAN WITH THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO CITY AND ENDED WITH THE DEFEAT AND EXECUTION OF NAPOLEON III'S PUPPET EMPEROR, ARCHDUKE MAXIMILIAN OF AUSTRIA, WHO HAD BEEN SENT BY NAPOLEON III TO BE EMPEROR OF MEXICO. MEXICAN RESISTANCE WAS LED BY BENITO JUAREZ, WHO BECAME A LOCAL HERO.
(1) AFTER ITS CIVIL WAR, THE U.S. HAD AIDED MEXICO BY GIVING NAPOLEON III AN ULTIMATUM TO WITHDRAW.
(2) THE WITHDRAWAL OF FRENCH TROOPS BY NAPOLEON III CREATED A LOSS OF INTERNATIONAL PRESTIGE FOR FRANCE.
(3) THUS, NAPOLEON III's INTERVENTION IN MEXICO PROVED DISASTROUS FOR HIM.
- PRUSSIA'S QUICK DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA AT THE BATTLE OF SADOWA (1866) AND PRUSSIA'S LENIENT TERMS OF SURRENDER TO AUSTRIA PUT AN END TO INTERNAL GERMAN RIVALRY WHICH HAD ALWAYS BENEFITED FRANCE.
- THE FINAL DISASTER TO NAPOLEON III'S FOREIGN POLICY CAME OVER FRENCH OPPOSITION TO A HOHENZOLLERN PRINCE SUCCEEDING TO THE SPANISH THRONE WHICH LED TO:
(1) EMS TELEGRAM.
(2) DECLARATION OF WAR BY FRANCE AGAINST PRUSSIA.
(3) NAPOLEON III CAPTURED AT SEDAN AFTER ONLY SIX WEEKS WHICH LED TO THE DEFEAT OF FRANCE AND THE PROCLAMATION OF THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC.
THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC (1870-1940)
- A PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT UNDER LEON GAMBETTA WAS SET UP TO CONTINUE THE WAR WITH PRUSSIA, BUT GERMAN ARMIES LAID SIEGE TO PARIS, AND THE REMAINING FRENCH ARMY SURRENDERED AT METZ IN OCTOBER 1870.
- IN 1871, PARIS SURRENDERED TO PRUSSIA AND ELECTIONS WERE HELD TO A NEW NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. TWO-THIRDS OF THOSE ELECTED TO THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY WERE MONARCHISTS WHO WANTED A KING (BOURBON OR ORLEANS) RETURNED TO THE THRONE. THE GOVERNMENT ADJOURNED TO VERSAILLES WHILE IN PARIS THE COMMUNE - BACKED BY THE NATIONAL GUARD - DENOUNCED THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AND REVOLTED TO ENSURE THAT A MONARCHY WOULD NOT BE RESTORED.
- PARIS COMMUNE (MARCH-MAY 1871) - THE CITY GOVERNMENT OF PARIS FOUGHT AGAINST THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY IN A CIVIL WAR.
- THE COMMUNE HAD NO DEFINITE PROGRAM BUT ADVOCATED A FEDERATED STATE OF SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNES.
- IT INCLUDED RADICAL AND MODERATE REPUBLICANS, MARXIAN SOCIALISTS AND ANARCHISTS, AND TENDED TO BE DOMINATED BY MORE RADICAL ELEMENTS WHEN FIGHTING BROKE OUT.
- THIS CIVIL WAR WAS PARTICULARLY BLOODY AND WAS FOUGHT BARRICADE-BY-BARRICADE THROUGH THE STREETS OF PARIS.
- IN THE END, THE COMMUNE WAS CRUSHED AND TENS OF THOUSANDS OF PARISIANS DIED OR WERE DEPORTED.
- DURING THE CIVIL WAR WITH THE COMMUNE, THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY SIGNED THE HUMILIATING TREATY OF FRANKFURT (1871), WHICH ENDED THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.
- THE CRISIS OF "SEIZE MAI" (MAY 16 1877) RESULTED IN NEW NATIONAL ELECTIONS, WHICH:
- ESTABLISHED THE THIRD REPUBLIC AS THE TRUE GOVERNMENT,
- ESTABLISHED PARLIAMENTARY SUPREMACY, AND
- REMOVED THE THREAT BY ROYALISTS TO REINTRODUCE A MONARCHY.
AUSTRIA - HUNGARY (AFTER 1848)
- AFTER THE DEFEAT AT SADOWA IN 1866 BY PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA REALIZED THAT IT COULD NOT DOMINATE THE GERMANIES OVER THE INCREASING POWER OF PRUSSIA AND THAT IT COULD NOT FORCE HUNGARY TO SUBMIT TO HER LIKE HER OTHER SUBJECT NATIONALITIES.
- THE COMPROMISE OF 1867 CREATED A DUAL MONARCHY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND WAS BROUGHT ABOUT BY A HUNGARIAN LIBERAL NATIONALIST, FRANCIS DEAK, WHO WANTED TO OBTAIN AUTONOMY FOR HUNGARY NOT THROUGH REVOLUTION BUT BY COMPROMISE, AND BY EMPEROR FRANZ JOSEPH OF AUSTRIA WHO REALIZED THE WEAKER POSITION AUSTRIA NOW HELD BECAUSE OF HER DEFEAT BY PRUSSIA.
- HUNGARY BECOMES AN AUTONOMOUS STATE JOINED TO AUSTRIA ONLY BY EMPEROR FRANZ JOSEPH.
- THIS DUAL MONARCHY GAVE POWER TO WEALTHY LANDLORDS AND MERCHANTS AND RESTED ON THE DOMINANCE OF MAGYARS (HUNGARY) OVER CROATS, SERBS AND RUMANIANS, AND GERMAN (AUSTRIA) CONTROL OVER CZECHS, POLES, SLOVENES, SLOVAKS, AND RUTHENIANS. THERE WAS LITTLE DEMOCRACY IN THIS DUAL MONARCHY AND BOTH AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY SUPPRESSED THEIR SUBJECT NATIONALITIES.
FOREIGN POLICY
- DESIRE FOR EXPANSION BECAME DIRECTED AT THE OTTOMAN-HELD TERRITORIES IN THE BALKANS.
- THIS WOULD BE A DIRECT THREAT TO THE PAN-SLAV MOVEMENT OF UNION OF ALL SLAVIC PEOPLE.
- THIS DESIRE WOULD ALSO BRING AUSTRIA-HUNGARY INTO CONFLICT WITH RUSSIA WHO CONSIDERED HERSELF THE "MOTHER OF ALL SLAVS".
RUSSIA (1848-1881)
- RUSSIA CONTINUED TO BE THE MOST BACKWARD OF ALL MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS.
- THE COUNTRY WAS OVERWHELMINGLY RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL.
- THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WAS SLOW IN COMING TO RUSSIA.
- A HUGE GULF EXISTED BETWEEN THE NOBILITY AND THE PEASANT MASSES.
- THE GOVERNMENT WAS THE MOST AUTHORITARIAN IN EUROPE. TSAR NICHOLAS I (1825-1855) HAD BECOME EUROPE'S MOST REACTIONARY MONARCH.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
- THE CRIMEAN WAR (1854-1856)
- BEGAN WHEN THE SULTAN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (AT BRITISH URGING) DECLARED WAR ON RUSSIA.
- AFTER RUSSIA DEFEATED A TURKISH NAVAL FORCE, GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE ALLIED WITH TURKEY AGAINST RUSSIA.
- MOST OF THE FIGHTING TOOK PLACE IN THE CRIMEA WITH REMARKABLE INCOMPETENCE ON BOTH SIDES.
- THE FALL OF THE RUSSIAN FORTRESS AT SEBASTOPOL, TOGETHER WITH AN AUSTRIAN ULTIMATUM TO ACCEPT ENGLISH AND FRENCH CONDITIONS OF PEACE, FORCED RUSSIA TO SURRENDER.
- RESULTS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR - TREATY OF PARIS (1856):
- NEARLY 500,000 SOLDIERS DIED IN THE WAR; 2/3 OF THEM WERE RUSSIAN.
- OTTOMAN EMPIRE ADMITTED INTO THE EUROPEAN CONCERT.
- RUSSIA CEDED SOME TERRITORY AT THE MOUTH OF THE DANUBE.
- RUSSIA WAS FORCED TO ACCEPT A BAN ON WARSHIPS IN THE BLACK SEA.
- THE COOPERATION THAT HAD EXISTED BETWEEN RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA IN OPPOSING NATIONALISM DURING THE AGE OF METTERNICH WAS NOW OVER. COMPETITION BETWEEN THEM OVER THE BALKANS WOULD NOW BECOME A FOCAL POINT OF CONTENTION.
INTERNAL POLICIES
- AFTER THE CRIMEAN WAR, RUSSIA UNDER THEIR NEW TSAR - ALEXANDER II, LAUNCHED AN ERA OF REFORM UNEQUALLED SINCE PETER THE GREAT.
- IN 1861, SERFDOM WAS ABOLISHED BY DECREE OF ALEXANDER II.
- ALEXANDER II BECAME KNOWN AS THE "TSAR LIBERATOR".
- IN THE SAME YEAR, IMPORTANT RESPONSIBILITIES WERE DELEGATED TO THE "MIR" - THE VILLAGE COMMUNE INCLUDING HAVING ELECTED OFFICIALS ASSIGN PLOTS, AND DETERMINE CROPS TO BE PLANTED, AS WELL AS PAYING TAXES TO THE STATE. PEASANTS WERE NOW FREE FROM SERVITUDE TO THE NOBILITY BUT DID NOT HAVE FREEDOM OF PERSONAL MOVEMENT, I.E., THEY COULD NOT LEAVE THE COMMUNE OR SELL THEIR LAND WITHOUT PERMISSION FROM THE MIR.
- "ZEMSTVO" LAW OF 1864
A) A ZEMSTVO WAS A LOCAL ASSEMBLY OF NOBLES, PEASANTS, AND TOWNSPEOPLE WITH THE POWER TO LEVY TAXES FOR LOCAL IMPROVEMENTS.
B) IN PRACTICE, THE NOBILITY DOMINATED THE ZEMSTVOS.
- PRIMARY SCHOOLS INCREASED DRAMATICALLY UNDER ALEXANDER II.
- REFORM OF THE ARMY INCLUDING RELAXATION OF YEARS OF REQUIRED SERVICE FROM THE LOWER CLASSES.
- DESPITE THE REFORMS OF ALEXANDER II, IT WAS FELT THAT THESE REFORMS WERE NOT ENOUGH, PARTICULARLY BY THE YOUNG INTELLIGENSIA.
- NEW SPOKESMEN, NIHILISTS, REJECTED COMPROMISE WITH THE SYSTEM AND ACCEPTED THE UTILITY OF VIOLENCE TO ANYTHING DEEMED NOT TO HAVE SOCIAL USEFULNESS.
- TERRORISM INCREASED IN RUSSIA AND IN 1881 ALEXANDER II WAS ASSASSINATED.
GREAT BRITAIN (AFTER 1848)
FOREIGN POLICY
- IN 1854-1856, GREAT BRITAIN WAS INVOLVED WITH FRANCE, PIEDMONT AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AGAINST RUSSIA IN THE CRIMEAN WAR.
- AFTER THE CRIMEAN WAR, SHE ENTERED INTO A PERIOD OF "SPLENDID ISOLATION."
- COLONIAL EXPANSION WAS ENCOURAGED IN AFRICA AND ASIA.
INTERNAL AFFAIRS
- INDUSTRIAL GROWTH CONTINUED.
- VARIOUS REGULATIONS HELPED TO IMPROVE CONDITIONS FOR THE WORKING CLASS INCLUDING A SECOND AND THIRD REFORM BILL.
- ENGLAND, BETWEEN THE YEARS 1850 AND 1900, WAS GOVERNED BY THREE MEMORABLE PRIME MINISTERS: LORD PALMERSTON, WILLIAM GLADSTONE, AND BENJAMIN DISRAELI.
1) LORD PALMERSTON
- DURING HIS RULE AS PRIME MINISTER, 1855-1865, THE OLD WHIG AND TORY PARTIES DIED OUT, TO BE REPLACED BY THE LIBERAL AND CONSERVATIVE PARTIES RESPECTIVELY.
- IT WAS PALMERSTON WHO WAS TEMPTED, DURING THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861-1865), TO EXTEND RECOGNITION TO THE SOUTH. THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY BY THE NORTH AND THE REFUSAL TO ABOLISH SLAVERY BY THE SOUTH HELPED TO PREVENT THIS RECOGNITION.
- WITH THE DEATH OF PALMERSTON, IN 1865, CONTROL OF THE GOVERNMENT SWITCHED BACK AND FORTH BETWEEN THE LIBERALS, UNDER WILLIAM GLADSTONE AND THE CONSERVATIVES UNDER BENJAMIN DISRAELI.
- THESE TWO PRIME MINISTERS WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR MANY SOCIAL AND POLITICAL REFORMS, BUT WERE GREAT RIVALS.
2) DISRAELI - LEADER OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY
- DISRAELI'S GOVERNMENT WAS CHARACTERIZED BY STRONG SUPPORT FOR THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, THE MONARCHY, AND FOR BRITISH IMPERIALISM.
- IN FOREIGN POLICY, HE WAS AN IMPERIALIST.
- WITH INTERNAL AFFAIRS, HE EXTENDED SUFFRAGE PARTICULARLY IN THE CITIES AND GAVE MORE PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION TO THE LARGE CITIES. HE ALSO HELPED IMPROVE THE POSITION OF LABOR; IMPROVED PUBLIC HEALTH; AND INAUGURATED PUBLIC HOUSING TO ALLEVIATE SLUMS.
3) GLADSTONE - LEADER OF THE LIBERAL PARTY WAS SUCCESSFUL IN PASSING MUCH LEGISLATION IN A PERIOD KNOWN AS THE "GLORIOUS MINISTRY" (1868-74). WITH INTERNAL AFFAIRS, HE LAID THE BASIS FOR
COMPULSORY EDUCATION. HE ALSO BROUGHT ABOUT CIVIL SERVICE REFORM (COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS); REFORM OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE ARMY; BROUGHT ABOUT COMPENSATION FOR INJURED WORKERS, EXTENDED SUFFRAGE TO MINERS AND AGRICULTURAL WORKERS WHICH LED TO ALMOST UNIVERSAL MANHOOD SUFFRAGE.
- GLADSTONE DESERVES MUCH CREDIT FOR ATTEMPTING TO SOLVE "THE IRISH QUESTION."
- IN 1869, HE WAS ABLE TO DIS-ESTABLISH THE ANGLICAN CHURCH AS THE "OFFICIAL" CHURCH OF IRELAND.
- HE BECAME THE FIRST PRIME MINISTER TO PUSH FOR IRISH "HOME RULE" AS A FINAL SOLUTION TO THE "IRISH QUESTION."
- HIS BILLS FOR HOME RULE WERE DEFEATED IN 1886 AND IN 1893. HIS FIGHT FOR HOME RULE ALSO CAUSED A SPLIT IN HIS LIBERAL PARTY WITH SOME OF THE LIBERALS JOINING THE CONSERVATIVES WHO OPPOSED IT.
- IRONICALLY, "HOME RULE" FINALLY PASSED IN 1914, BUT WAS SUSPENDED BECAUSE OF W.W.I., AND FEAR OF A REVOLT BY THE PROTESTANTS IN NORTHERN IRELAND. MANY BRITISH OFFICERS ALSO CAME FROM NORTHERN IRELAND AND THREATENED TO MUTINY AGAINST HOME RULE.