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| Western Civilization I page. |
I. ECONOMIC EXPANSION
- A DENSE POPULATION SUSTAINED A STRONG DEMAND FOR FOOD, ESPECIALLY FOR CEREALS.
CITIES
- PARIS WAS THE LARGEST WESTERN MEDIEVAL CITY WITH A POPULATION AROUND 200,000 BY 1300 A.D.
- FEW TOWNS SURPASSED 40,000.
- ECONOMY OF THE TOWNS BASED ON THE "PUTTING-OUT SYSTEM."
- IT REMAINED CHARACTERISTIC OF THE WESTERN ECONOMY UNTIL THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. MOST WORK WAS PERFORMED IN THE HOME AS THERE WERE NO FACTORIES.
- THE MAKING OF WOOLEN CLOTH WAS THE LARGEST INDUSTRY OF THE MEDIEVAL TOWN.
- A FEW GREAT ENTREPRENEURS CONTROLLED HUGE MASSES OF CAPITAL.
GUILDS
- BY 12TH CENTURY, BOTH ARTISANS AND MERCHANTS HAD ORGANIZED THEIR OWN GUILDS.
- USUALLY MET ONCE A YEAR TO CHANGE STATUTES AND ELECT NEW MEMBERS.
- THE GUILDS PERFORMED VARIOUS SERVICES:
- PROTECTED THE MEMBERS FROM UNFAIR COMPETITION.
- RESTRICTED NUMBER OF WORKING HOURS.
- RESTRICTED NUMBER OF WORKERS.
- PROVIDED RUDIMENTARY SOCIAL SECURITY TO MEMBERS WHO LOST GOODS IN FIRE OR FLOODS.
- SUPPORTED WIDOWS AND ORPHANS.
- A CHIEF CONTRIBUTION OF THE GUILD WAS THE APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM.
- THE GUILDS WERE THE MOST IMPORTANT INSTITUTION OF LAY EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
- WHILE AN APPRENTICE MIGHT BECOME A MASTER OF HIS OWN RIGHT, MOST MEDIEVAL ARTISANS CONTINUED TO WORK AS SALARIED LABORERS AND NEVER BECAME MASTERS.
- IT WAS RARE FOR GIRLS TO SERVE AS APPRENTICES ALTHOUGH PARIS HAD A FEW GUILDS DEDICATED SOLELY TO WOMEN.
BUSINESS INSTITUTIONS/COMPANIES
- CHRISTIAN ETHIC CONTINUED TO CONDEMN THE TAKING OF USURY (PROFIT FROM A LOAN) BUT BUSINESSES GOT AROUND THIS BY CHARGING MONEY FOR CHANGING MONEY - NOT TECHNICALLY FOR THE LOAN.
- TEMPORARY PARTNERSHIPS AND BUSINESS ASSOCIATIONS BECAME WAYS OF RECRUITING CAPITAL.
- MORE PERMANENT PARTNERSHIPS WERE SET UP IN INLAND ITALIAN TOWNS KNOWN AS COMPAGNIA (BREAD TOGETHER). THEY TOO WERE A VALUABLE SOURCE OF CAPITAL IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
II. STATES OF EUROPE
ENGLAND
- HENRY 11's SON, RICHARD I, THE LION HEARTED, SUCCEEDED HIM TO THE THRONE IN 1189.
- HE SPENT VERY LITTLE TIME IN ENGLAND PREFERRING TO ENGAGE IN BATTLES, e.g., THE THIRD CRUSADE. HE WAS SUCCEEDED BY HIS BROTHER JOHN WHO HAD A DISASTROUS REIGN.
- JOHN DISAGREED WITH THE CHURCH OVER THE APPOINTMENT OF THE ARCHBISHOP OF CANTEBURY WHO PUT ENGLAND UNDER INTERDICT IN 1208 (A STRIKE BY THE CLERGY). THIS WAS NOT EFFECTIVE IN RESOLVING HIS DISPUTE WITH THE CHURCH.
- ONLY HIS NEED OF SUPPORT FROM THE POPE IN A WAR AGAINST FRANCE MADE HIM REMOVE HIS CANDIDATE FOR ARCHBISHOP.
- JOHN WAS DEFEATED IN WAR WITH FRANCE.
- JOHN WAS FORCED TO SIGN THE MAGNA CARTA IN 1215 BY THE ENGLISH BARONS.
- MAGNA CARTA
- JOHN REQUESTED MONEY FROM HIS BARONS FOR HIS WINLESS WAR WITH FRANCE.
- HE WAS REFUSED THE MONEY AND OBLIGATED TO RESPECT CERTAIN RIGHTS OF HIS SUBJECTS.
- THE MAGNA CARTA IS NOT A DOCUMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS BUT RATHER DEALT WITH FEUDAL LAW. IT PRIMARILY ADDRESSED THE CONCERNS OF THE ELITE (80% OF THE POPULATION - THE UNFREE CLASSES WERE HARDLY MENTIONED).
- IN ADDITION TO PROTECTING CERTAIN RIGHTS OF BARONS, IT GUARANTEED THE CLERGY THE FREEDOM TO ELECT BISHOPS WITHOUT THE KINGS INTERFERENCE.
- IT ALSO CALLED FOR ONE STANDARD OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES WHICH FACILITATED TRADE.
- IT DID PROMISE TO ALL FREED MEN ACCESS TO JUSTICE BY KNOWN PROCEDURES.
- THE KING COULD NOT IMPOSE NEW TAXES WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE REALM.
- THE DOCUMENT MARKED A MAJOR STEP TOWARD CONSTITUTIONALISM.
- A MOVEMENT BY THE BARONS TO FORCE JOHN'S SON, KING HENRY III, TO RULE ONLY UNDER THE TIGHT CONTROL OF THE BARONS (PROVISIONS OF OXFORD - 1258 A.D.) MET WITH ONLY TEMPORARY SUCCESS. THUS DESPITE THE LIMITATIONS OF THE MAGNA CARTA ON THE KING, IT WAS THE KING, NOT THE BARONS, WHO REMAINED THE CHIEF POWER OF ENGLAND.
EDWARD I (1272 - 1307)
- ONE OF THE MOST INFLUENTIAL OF MEDIEVAL ENGLISH KINGS.
- SEIZED WALES IN 1284 A.D.
- EXPELLED THE JEWS IN 1290 A.D. IN AN EFFORT TO PROMOTE UNITY.
- HIS STRONGEST MARK WAS ON ENGLISH LAW AND INSTITUTIONS (HE HAS BEEN REFERRED TO AS THE ENGLISH JUSTINIAN).
- UNLIKE JUSTINIAN, EDWARD DID NOT PRODUCE A SYSTEMATIC CODIFICATION OF ENGLISH LAW, WHICH REMAINED BASED ON CUSTOMS AND COURT DECISIONS BUT HE DID CORRECT AND ENLARGE THE COMMON LAW:
- ISSUED THE STATUTES OF THE REALM WHICH RESULTED IN WEAKENING THE JUSTICE SYSTEM OF THE BARONS WHILE STRENGTHENING ROYAL JUSTICE.
- LIMITED THE GROWTH OF LAND HELD BY THE CHURCH.
- PLACED EMPHASIS ON SECURING THE CONSENT OF HIS SUBJECTS THROUGH PARLIAMENT.
PARLIAMENT
- THE NAME MEANS "CONVERSATION" AND WAS FIRST USED DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY III.
- KNIGHTS AND OTHER VASSALS OF THE KING WERE CALLED INTO ASSEMBLY TO GIVE THE KING ADVICE, NOT TO LIMIT HIS POWER.
- PARLIAMENT AIDED THE KING NOT ONLY BY GIVING HIM ADVICE BUT BY ALSO STRENGTHENING ROYAL JUSTICE AND COLLECTING TAXES. IT WAS IN THE COLLECTION OF TAXES THAT PARLIAMENT'S REPRESENTATION BECAME BROADER. PARLIAMENT WAS THE HIGHEST COURT IN THE KINGDOM.
- EVENTUALLY PARLIAMENT BECAME DIVIDED BETWEEN THE HOUSE OF LORDS AND THE HOUSE OF COMMONS.
- AT EDWARD I's DEATH, THE CONSTITUTION HAD BEEN DEFINED NOT IN ONE DOCUMENT BUT BY BOTH CUSTOM AND STATUTE LAW.
FRANCE
- CAPETIAN KINGS CONTINUED TO STRENGTHEN THEMSELVES IN THE 13TH CENTURY.
LOUIS VIII (1223 - 1226)
- CAMPAIGNED SUCCESSFULLY AGAINST THE ALBEGENSIAN HERETICS IN SOUTHERN FRANCE.
- THIS PREPARED THE WAY FOR THE INCLUSION OF SOUTHERN TERRITORIES, i.e., TOULOUSE AND LANGUEDOC INTO THE ROYAL DOMAIN.
LOUIS IX - ST. LOUIS (1226 - 1270)
- ONE OF THE GREATEST OF MEDIEVAL FRENCH KINGS.
- RECOGNIZED AS A SAINT WHILE STILL LIVING.
- ATTENDED 2 MASSES DAILY, WASHED THE FEET OF THE POOR AND WOUNDS OF LEPERS.
- DID NOT TRY TO WEAKEN THE POWER OF THE NOBLES BUT DID INSIST IN KEEPING PEACE AMONG THEM.
- LAWS AND CUSTOMS WERE CLARIFIED UNDER HIM.
- UNDER HIM, THE PARLEMENT OF PARIS BECAME FULLY INDEPENDENT OF THE ROYAL COURT.
- THE PARLEMENT OF PARIS WAS NEVER A REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY LIKE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT BUT RATHER A COURT OF LAW. IT BECAME THE HIGHEST COURT OF LAW IN FRANCE UNTIL THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
- LOUIS MADE PEACE WITH ARAGON (PART OF SPAIN) WHICH ENDED SPANISH-FRENCH BORDER DISPUTES FOR THE NEXT 200 YEARS.
- LOUIS MADE PEACE WITH ENGLAND OVER DISPUTED TERRITORIES IN WESTERN FRANCE.
- ENGLAND WAS ABLE TO RETAIN GASCONY AND ITS BORDERLANDS.
- LOUIS LED THE LAST TWO MAJOR WESTERN CRUSADES AGAINST ISLAM WHICH ENDED UNFAVORABLY FOR FRANCE.
- HE DIED ON A CRUSADE AT TUNIS.
PHILIP IV (1285 - 1314)
- LED UNSUCCESSFUL WAR AGAINST EDWARD I OF ENGLAND IN ORDER TO DRIVE ENGLISH POWER OFF THE CONTINENT.
- CONFISCATED ALL THE PROPERTY OF THE JEWS TO REPLENISH HIS TREASURY AND EXPELLED THE JEWS TEMPORARILY IN 1306 A.D.
- ARRESTED MEMBERS OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPLARS WITHIN FRANCE TO ALSO ADD TO HIS TREASURY.
- HE WAS NOT SUCCESSFUL IN ENRICHING HIS TREASURY THIS WAY AS THE POPE HAD ALL MONEY TRANSFERRED FROM THE KNIGHTS TEMPLARS TO ANOTHER MILITARY-RELIGIOUS ORDER - THE KNIGHTS HOSPITALERS.
- PHILIP TRIED TO ESTABLISH AN ABSOLUTE MONARCHY BY SELECTING STRONG MINISTERS AS ADVISERS WHO WANTED ROYAL AUTHORITY TO BE GREATLY EXPANDED.
- PHILIP LEFT THE FEUDAL EQUILIBRIUM OF FRANCE BADLY BROKEN AND RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND EXACERBATED.
IBERIAN KINGDOMS
- THE RECONQUISTA HAD ACHIEVED VICTORY OVER ISLAMIC HOLDINGS IN ALL OF IBERIA BY 1236 A.D. EXCEPT GRANADA (SOUTHERN AREA OF SPAIN).
- THREE MAJOR CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS THAT EMERGED FROM THE RECONQUISTA WERE:
1) PORTUGAL
2) CASTILE (WESTERN AND CENTRAL SPAIN)
3) ARAGON (EASTERN SPAIN)
- JEWS AND MUSLIMS WERE GRANTED THE RIGHT TO LIVE UNDER THEIR OWN LAWS IN THESE NEW KINGDOMS.
- MANY SELF-GOVERNING REPUBLICS COMPRISED THESE 3 KINGDOMS.
- REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLIES, THE CORTES, BECAME THE MOST POWERFUL IN ALL OF EUROPE.
- THE CORTES AIDED THE KINGS IN OBTAINING CONSENT OF THE POWERFUL NOBLES.
- KINGS ALSO CODIFIED FEUDAL LAW AS THEY GREW STRONGER.
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
- WHILE ENGLISH, FRENCH AND IBERIAN KINGDOMS MOVED TOWARD GREATER UNITY UNDER GROWING CENTRALIZED GOVERNMENTS BY THEIR RESPECTIVE KINGS, GERMAN AND ITALIAN TERRITORIES DISINTEGRATED INTO NUMEROUS SMALL AND AUTONOMOUS PRINCIPALITIES.
- NEITHER THE POPE NOR THE FREE ITALIAN CITIES OF THE NORTH WANTED TO BE DOMINATED BY A GERMAN EMPEROR.
- FREDERICK II (1212 - 1250)
- WAS CONSIDERED A PROTOTYPE OF THE RENAISSANCE DESPOT:
- SPOKE 6 LANGUAGES; PATRONIZED POETS; CORRECTED THE WORKS OF ARISTOTLE; HEAVILY INVOLVED IN POLITICAL GAIN.
- CROWNED EMPEROR IN 1219 A.D.
- SECURED THE EASTERN FRONTIER OF THE EMPIRE BY ESTABLISHING A MILITARY RELIGIOUS ORDER - THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS WHO EVENTUALLY CREATED THE PRUSSIAN STATE.
- HIS MOST LASTING CONTRIBUTION WAS TO CONFER UPON THE GERMAN NOBLES THEIR VIRTUAL SOVEREIGNTY WITHIN THEIR OWN TERRITORY.
- THE EMPEROR RETAINED ONLY THE RIGHT TO SET FOREIGN POLICY OF THE EMPIRE AND TO SETTLE DISPUTES AMONG HIS PRINCIPALITIES.
- NO LATER EMPEROR COULD EVEN REGAIN WHAT FREDERICK II GAVE AWAY.
- HE THUS ENSURED THE DECENTRALIZATION OF THE EMPIRE THROUGHOUT GERMAN LANDS.
- IRONICALLY, FREDERICK II TRIED TO DO THE EXACT OPPOSITE IN ITALY BY TRYING TO ESTABLISH A STRONG CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.
- BOTH THE POPE, WHO EXCOMMUNICATED HIM TWICE, AND THE NORTHERN ITALIAN TOWNS OF LOMBARD FOUGHT AGAINST HIM.
- TO PLACATE THE POPE, HE LED THE SIXTH CRUSADE AGAINST THE MUSLZIMS WHICH DID GUARANTEE SAFE PASSAGE TO JERUSALEM TO UNARMED CHRISTIANS.
- HE WAS NOT SUCCESSFUL IN HIS ATTEMPT TO UNIFY ITALY UNDER THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.
III. THE CHURCH
GROWTH OF HERESY
- FROM 5TH TO THE 11TH CENTURY THERE WERE NO MAJOR HERESIES IN THE WESTERN CHURCH (ROMAN CATHOLIC).
- REASONS FOR HERESIES INCLUDED:
- NUMEROUS YOUTH (MALE AND FEMALE) IN THE GROWING TOWNS WHO WERE UNABLE TO OBTAIN CAREERS BECAME DISSATISFIED WITH BOTH CHURCH AND SOCIETY.
- ENVY BY THE NOBLES OF THE CHURCH'S WEALTH ESPECIALLY PROPERTY.
- LAYPEOPLE LOOKING FOR A MORE EMOTIONAL REWARD FROM RELIGION.
- INABILITY OF LAYPEOPLE TO READ THE BIBLE IN THE VERNACULAR OR TO HEAR IT READ IN THE VERNACULAR.
- MANY HERETICS MADE A SPECIAL EFFORT TO RECRUIT WOMEN.
WALDENSIANS
- NAMED AFTER PETER WALDO OF LYON (FRANCE) WHO AROUND 1170 A.D. ATTACKED THE MORAL LAXITY OF THE CLERGY AND DENOUNCED THE SACRAMENTS THAT THEY ADMINISTERED.
- CHURCH NEVER ENTIRELY SUPPRESSED THIS MOVEMENT.
ALBIGENSIANS
- NAMED AFTER A TOWN CALLED ALBI IN LANGUEDOC (SOUTHERN FRANCE).
- WAS REALLY A NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGION RATHER THAN A HERESY.
- LIKE MANICHEANISM (THAT PREDATED CHRIST), THIS RELIGION BELIEVED IN A GOD OF LIGHT AND A GOD OF DARKNESS.
- THE PERSON MUST HELP THE GOD OF LIGHT VANQUISH THE GOD OF DARKNESS WHO RULED THE MATERIAL WORLD.
- REGARDED MARRIAGE AS HYPOCRISY.
- TRUE ALBIGENSIANS ABSTAINED FROM SEXUAL INTERCOURSE AND THE EATING OF MEAT. THEY WERE KNOWN AS THE PERFECTI.
- DENIED THAT THE SACRAMENTS HAD ANY VALUE.
- BELIEVED IN NO RESURRECTION OF THE BODY.
- THEY USED A VERNACULAR TESTAMENT AND PREACHED IN THE VERNACULAR.
SUPPRESSION OF HERESY
- FIRST ATTEMPT BY THE CHURCH TO DEAL WITH HERESY WAS TO RECONVERT HERETICS.
- THE DOMINICAN ORDER, WHO LIVED IN POVERTY AND BEGGED TO SUPPORT THEMSELVES, WAS APPROVED IN 1215 A.D. AS AN ORDER TO FIGHT AGAINST HERESY BY EXAMPLE.
- DOMINICANS STRESSED EDUCATION AND BECAME THE INTELLECTUAL ARM OF THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH.
- MEMBERS INCLUDED ALBERTUS MAGNUS AND THOMAS AQUINAS.
- RECONVERSION THROUGH PREACHING AND EXAMPLE WAS SLOW AND NOT ALWAYS SUCCESSFUL.
- FRANCISCANS FOUNDED BY FRANCIS OF ASSISI (1182? - 1226) WHO WOULD BECOME ONE OF THE GREATEST SAINTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
- HE TAUGHT THAT TRUE JOY COULD BE OBTAINED BY RECOGNIZING GOD'S PROVIDENCE. THIS JOY WOULD BRING HARMONY TO THE WORLD.
- HE STRESSED THE IMPORTANCE OF POVERTY AND SIMPLICITY.
- HIS ORDER OF FRIARS MINOR GREW TO BECOME THE LARGEST ORDER IN THE CHURCH.
- LIKE THE DOMINICANS, THE MESSAGE OF THE FRANCISCANS WAS DIRECTED AT THE LAYPEOPLE IN THE TOWNS.
- A SECOND ORDER OF NUNS AND A THIRD ORDER OF LAYPEOPLE WERE EVENTUALLY INCLUDED IN THE FRANCISCANS.
- CHURCH BEGAN IN THE 1200's TO SUPPRESS HERESY BY FORCE.
- POPE INNOCENT III CALLED FOR A CRUSADE AGAINST THE ALBIGENSIANS (1208 - 1229) WHICH KNIGHTS OF NORTHERN FRANCE SUPPORTED MORE FOR PLUNDER THAN RELIGIOUS ZEAL.
- POPE INNOCENT III WAS ONE OF THE STRONGEST POPES OF THE CHURCH. HE WOULD BECOME THE STRONGEST TEMPORAL LEADER THE CHURCH EVER HAD.
- HE OFTEN INTERVENED IN ASSERTING THE CHURCH'S SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY WITH THE KINGS OF EUROPE.
- WHILE THE CRUSADE DEFEATED THE NOBLES OF LANGUEDOC, THE HERESY REMAINED.
- 1231 A.D. - POPE GREGORY IX INSTITUTED THE SPECIAL PAPAL COURT KNOWN AS THE INQUISITION.
- LIKE THE ENGLISH JUSTICES OF EYRE, INQUISITORS WERE ITINERANT JUSTICES WHO VISITED TOWNS WITHIN THEIR CIRCUIT AT REGULAR INTERVALS.
- PROCEDURES WERE SECRET WITH THE ACCEPTANCE OF SECRET DENUNCIATIONS AND THE DENIAL OF COUNSEL.
- THE ACCUSED COULD CONFESS WHICH RESULTED IN A HEAVY PENANCE AND LOSS OF PROPERTY. UNREPENTANT HERETICS WERE GIVEN TO SECULAR AUTHORITIES TO BE PUT TO DEATH.
- THE NUMBER OF HERETICS EXECUTED NEVER AMOUNTED TO MORE THAN SEVERAL HUNDRED AS FINES, CONFISCATION OF PROPERTY AND IMPRISONMENT WERE THE USUAL PUNISHMENTS FOR MOST HERETICS.
PAPACY IN THE 13TH CENTURY
- FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL - 1215 A.D. - SUMMONED BY POPE INNOCENT III TO BRING NEW ORDER TO THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. AMONG ISSUES DECREED AT THIS COUNCIL WERE:
1 - THERE ARE EXACTLY 7 SACRAMENTS.
2 - SACRAMENTS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR SALVATION.
3 - YEARLY CONFESSION AND COMMUNION WERE OBLIGATORY.
4 - PRIESTS PERFORM TRANSUBSTANTIATION DURING MASS.
- FORMALIZATION OF THIS MIRACLE INCREASED THE DIGNITY AND GROWTH OF THE PRIESTHOOD.
- THIS COUNCIL HAD ONE OF THE GREATEST INFLUENCES OF ALL COUNCILS EVER HELD IN THE CHURCH.
- PAPAL ADMINISTRATION, ESPECIALLY FINANCES, EXPANDED DURING THE 13TH CENTURY.
- AS MORE FUNDS WERE NEEDED FOR PAPAL PROJECTS, ABUSES BEGAN TO GROW:
- PAYMENTS FOR APPOINTMENTS TO OFFICE.
- SELLING DISPENSATIONS FROM CANON LAW REGULATIONS.
- 1309 - 1377 A.D. - PAPAL RESIDENCE MOVED FROM ROME TO AVINGNON, FRANCE.
IV. MEDIEVAL CULTURE - 13TH CENTURY
MEDIEVAL SYNTHESIS - REASON AND FAITH
- THIS WAS THE EFFORT MADE TO RECONCILE THE ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY (HUMAN REASON COULD RESOLVE THE METAPHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE) WITH CHRISTIANITY'S BELIEF THAT DIVINE GRACE AND REVELATION (FAITH) WERE ESSENTIAL TO ACHIEVE SUCH A METAPHYSICAL UNDERSTANDING.
THOMAS AQUINAS (1225? - 1274)
- THE GREATEST OF ALL SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHERS.
- HE WAS A DOMINICAN WHO STUDIED UNDER THE GERMAN DOMINICAN ALBERTUS MAGNUS.
- THOMAS LECTURED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS AND TRAVELED WIDELY.
- HE WROTE WIDELY WITH HIS GREATEST WORK BEING SUMMA THEOLOGICA.
- TRIED TO RECONCILE FAITH AND REASON BY SEEKING THE COMMON GROUND BETWEEN TWO INTERPRETATIONS OF REALITY REGARDING THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE CALLED REALISM AND NOMINALISM.
GOTHIC CATHEDRAL
- TERM "GOTHIC" WAS INTRODUCED IN THE 16TH CENTURY AS A DERISIVE EXPRESSION OF SUPPOSEDLY BARBAROUS MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS.
- GOTHIC STYLE INITIALLY DEVELOPED IN FRANCE, AROUND PARIS, FROM ABOUT 1150 A.D.
- EARLY GOTHIC CHURCHES WERE ALMOST ALL URBAN.
- EARLY GOTHIC CHURCHES WERE DEDICATED TO THE VIRGIN MARY. THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME IN PARIS, BUILD CA 1160 - 1200 IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THE EARLY REPRESENTATIONS OF GOTHIC STYLE.
- GOTHIC STYLE WAS MOST USED IN BUILDING MAGNIFICENT CHURCHES WITH HUNDREDS OF STATUES.
- A STRONG SENSE OF ORDER WAS IMPLIED IN GOTHIC STYLE.
- GOTHIC STYLE EVENTUALLY WAS USED IN SECULAR ARCHITECTURE SUCH AS TOWN HALLS AND PRIVATE HOUSES.
- THREE ENGINEERING DEVICES WERE INCORPORATED IN GOTHIC STYLE:
1 - BROKEN RATHER THAN ROUNDED ARCH
2 - RIBBED VAULTING
3 - FLYING BUTTRESS
- AN EXTENDED SUPPORT THAT ALLOWED FOR HIGHER WALLS AND PERMITTED THE USE OF LARGE AREAS FOR WINDOWS. THE USE OF LIGHT IS ONE OF THE MOST DISTINCTIVE ASPECTS OF GOTHIC STYLE. THE PASSAGE OF LIGHT THROUGH STAINED GLASS WINDOWS WAS MEANT TO CONVEY A SPIRITUAL BEAUTY SUGGESTING A DIVINE PRESENCE.
- MUSIC, ESPECIALLY POLYPHONIC MUSIC, WAS ALSO MEANT TO CREATE A SPIRITUAL BEAUTY DURING THIS TIME.
DANTE
- LITERARY OUTPUT IN THE VERNACULAR CONTINUED TO GROW IN MOST WESTERN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES EXCEPT ENGLISH WHICH HAD BEEN RETARDED IN DEVELOPMENT BY A FRENCH- SPEAKING ARISTOCRACY.
- ONE OF THE GREATEST MASTERPIECES OF THE EARLY 14TH CENTURY WAS THE DIVINE COMEDY WRITTEN BY DANTE ALIGHIERI BETWEEN 1313 - 1321.
- CALLED A COMMEDIA BECAUSE OF THE CLASSICAL NOTION OF A HAPPY ENDING (NO MATTER HOW SERIOUS THE MATERIAL).
- POEM DESCRIBES DANTE'S JOURNEY THROUGH:
1) HELL
2) PURGATORY
3) HEAVEN
- IN HIS JOURNEY HE IS AIDED BY 2 GUIDES:
1) VIRGIL - REPRESENTS HUMAN REASON WHO GUIDES DANTE THROUGH HELL AND PURGATORY.
- THROUGH THE USE OF REASON, DANTE COMES TO UNDERSTAND WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR A FULL AND PEACEFUL EARTHLY EXISTENCE.
2) BEATRICE - REPRESENTS SUPERNATURAL REVELATION AND GRACE WHO GUIDES HIM INTO THE PRESENCE OF GOD IN HEAVEN.
- THE HEAVENLY SETTING IS WHERE THE BOOK ENDS WITH DANTE UNDERSTANDING MORE FULLY THE PEACE AND JOY THAT COMES THROUGH GRACE.
- LIKE THOMAS AQUINAS, DANTE WAS TRYING TO COMBINE THE TWO OPPOSING VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE, i.e., REASON AND FAITH BEING NECESSARY FOR EXISTENCE.