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Western Civilization I page. |
I. ECONOMIC/SOCIAL CHANGES
THE YEAR 1000 A.D. IS NOW RECOGNIZED AS A WATERSHED BETWEEN 2 CONTRASTING PERIODS IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION, i.e., THE PERIOD BEFORE AND AFTER.
- AFTER 1000 A.D. GREAT CHANGES OCCUR ON EVERY LEVEL.
EXPANSION
- POPULATION BEFORE 1000 A.D. WAS SMALL AND CLUSTERED IN CROWDED COMMUNITIES. PEOPLE DIDN'T VENTURE OUT FROM COMMUNITIES BECAUSE:
- RESTRICTIONS OF SERFDOM
- FEAR OR INVADERS
- FEAR OF WILDERNESS
- AFTER 1000 A.D., PATTERN OF SETTLEMENT CHANGED TO NEWLY OPENED FRONTIERS BECAUSE:
- DIMINUTION OF INVASIONS BY VIKINGS, HUNGARIANS AND SARACENS.
- PROFIT MOTIVE TO CULTIVATE THE WILDERNESS BY THE CHURCH AND OTHER LARGE LANDLORDS LED TO EXPANSION INTO WILDERNESS.
- LESS RESTRICTIONS ON SERFDOM - LORDS ENCOURAGING SETTLEMENT OF WILDERNESS.
FRONTIERS
- MAJOR EXPANSION OF FRONTIERS BY:
1) GERMAN SETTLEMENTS TO THE EAST (DRANG NACH OSTEN) TRIPLED AREA OF GERMAN SETTLEMENT FROM CAROLINGIAN TIMES.
2) CHRISTIAN SETTLEMENT OF IBERIA BY PUSHING SOUTHWARD AGAINST MUSLIM HOLDINGS.
- BECAME KNOWN AS THE RECONQUISTA.
3) CHRISTIANS (NORMAN KNIGHTS) BEGAN PUSHING SOUTHWARD IN ITALY AGAINST MUSLIMS AND BYZANTINES. SUCCESSFULLY DROVE THESE PEOPLES FROM SOUTHERN ITALY INCLUDING SICILY TO FORM THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY.
4) RISE OF MARITIME POWERS WITH ITALIAN CITIES OF PISA AND GENOA SUCCESSFULLY DEFEATING MUSLIM FORCES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN.
SOCIAL CHANGES
- SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF THE SERFS CONTINUED TO IMPROVE AND BY THE EARLY 13TH CENTURY, SERFDOM HAD ALMOST DISAPPEARED IN FRANCE, SPAIN, ITALY AND WESTERN GERMANY.
- LANDLORDS NOW RENTED THEIR LANDS TO PEASANTS TO CULTIVATE.
- LORDS BECAME FREE TO LIVE AWAY FROM HOME FOR EXTENDED PERIODS.
- PEASANTS SOLD OR EXCHANGED THEIR SURPLUSES.
- THE RURAL CHURCH PROLIFERATED AND BECAME VERY INFLUENTIAL.
COMMERCE
- TRADE BECAME MORE VIGOROUS IN WESTERN EUROPE AFTER 1000 A.D.
- MOST TRADE WAS LOCAL.
- THREE TRADING ZONES DEVELOPED:
1) SOUTH
- MEDITERRANEAN SEA UNDER LEADERSHIP OF VENICE, PISA AND GENOA.
- GOODS SHIPPED FROM THE EAST INCLUDED CONDIMENTS, MEDICINES, PERFUMES, DYES, PAPER, PEARLS, PRECIOUS STONES ALL REFERRED TO AS "SPICES."
- GOODS SHIPPED TO THE EAST INCLUDED WOOD, IRON AND LATER WOOLEN CLOTH.
2) NORTH
- BALTIC SEA/NORTH SEA.
- TRADE INCREASED WITH FLANDERS BEING A GREAT INDUSTRIAL AREA WHICH IMPORTED FOOD AND RAW MATERIALS AND EXPORTED CLOTH.
3) OVERLAND ROUTES
- LINKED THE TWO REGIONS ABOVE.
REBIRTH OF URBAN LIFE
- GROWTH OF CITIES WAS STEADY BUT REMAINED RELATIVELY SLOW BETWEEN 1000 - 1200 A.D.
- OLDER CITIES GREW OUTWARD FROM SMALL CENTERS WHICH WERE OFTEN WALLED FOR PROTECTION.
- TOWNS OFTEN GOVERNED THEMSELVES THROUGH A COMMUNE THAT ACQUIRED A CHARTER FROM LORDS TO BE INDEPENDENT.
- TOWN LIFE DIVIDED IN THE SOCIAL SCALE BY:
1) PATRICIANS - HIGHEST LEVEL.
2) SMALL MERCHANTS AND SHOPKEEPERS. BEFORE 1200 A.D., MOST TOWNS HAD ONLY A SINGLE GUILD OR ASSOCIATION OF MERCHANTS. AFTER 1200 A.D., THE GUILDS MULTIPLIED SHOWING GREATER DIVERSIFICATION.
3) EMPLOYEES OF THE ABOVE TWO CLASSES - THE LOWEST SOCIAL LEVEL.
- MOST DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF URBAN LIFE BECAME THE FLUID DIVISION OF THE CLASSES, i.e., VERTICAL SOCIAL MOBILITY WAS EASIER IN THE CITY THAN ANY OTHER PART OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD (EXCEPT PERHAPS THE CHURCH).
- FROM 11TH CENTURY ONWARD, TOWNS EXERT A PROFOUND INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPING CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
II. FEUDALISM - POLITICAL ORDER IN WESTERN EUROPE
FEUDAL INSTITUTIONS
- THE TERMS FEUDALISM AND FEUDAL SYSTEMS WERE NEVER USED IN THE MIDDLE AGES BUT RATHER WERE USED AS PEJORATIVE TERMS BEGINNING IN THE 17TH CENTURY.
- THE TERMS TODAY ARE USED IN REFERENCE TO POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS, NOT ECONOMIC ONES.
- LARGE ESTATES AND SERFDOM ARE BETTER REFERRED TO AS THE MANORIAL SYSTEM - NOT THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.
- FEUDALISM IS NOW MORE NARROWLY DEFINED BY THE FREE CONTRACT THAT ESTABLISHED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO FREEMAN OF DIFFERING SOCIAL STATION, i.e., A LORD AND A VASSAL OF LOWER RANK.
- FEUDAL INSTITUTIONS DID NOT INCLUDE THE SERFS, WHO COULD NOT ENTER INTO A CONTRACT.
- FEUDALISM REFERS TO THE SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS CREATED BY CONTRACT WITHIN THE UPPER CLASSES.
- HISTORIANS TODAY DIVIDE WESTERN FEUDALISM INTO 2 PERIODS:
1) COLLAPSE OF ROME UNTIL 1050 A.D.
2) 1050 UNTIL 1300 A.D.
- FEUDALISM WAS CREATED TO ASSURE SECURITY IN AN ERA WHEN GOVERNMENTS WERE WEAK.
- IT DID NOT EXIST WHERE CLANS WERE STRONG, e.g., CELTIC AREAS LIKE IRELAND, SCOTLAND, WALES AND BRITTANY. COMMUNAL ASSOCIATIONS IN NORTHERN ITALY ALSO DID NOT SEE THE DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDALISM.
- TRUE HOMELAND OF WESTERN FEUDALISM WAS THE REGION BETWEEN THE LOIRE AND THE RHINE RIVERS.
- CLANS AND COMMUNAL ASSOCIATIONS WERE TOO WEAK AND SCATTERED THERE TO GUARANTEE SECURITY.
VASSALAGE
- HONORABLE PERSONAL BOND BETWEEN THE LORD AND HIS MAN (THE VASSAL).
- CREATED BY AN ACT OF HOMAGE.
- VASSAL PLACED HIS HANDS WITHIN THOSE OF HIS LORD (IMMIXIO MANUUM) AND OFTEN SWORE AN OATH OF FIDELITY (FEALTY).
- OBLIGATIONS WERE IMPOSED ON BOTH LORD AND VASSAL.
OBLIGATIONS OF THE VASSAL
- A VASSAL HAD TO PERFORM MILITARY SERVICE IN HIS LORD'S ARMY.
- A VASSAL WAS EXPECTED TO OFFER FINANCIAL AID TO HIS LORD IN CASE OF RANSOMING, KNIGHTING OF THE LORD'S ELDEST SON, MARRIAGE OF THE LORD'S ELDEST DAUGHTER, AND THE LORD'S DEPARTURE ON A CRUSADE. A VASSAL WAS EXPECTED TO GIVE COUNSEL IN LEGAL CASES THAT OCCURRED IN HIS LORD'S COURT.
- THE 2ND FEUDAL AGE SAW MULTIPLE VASSALAGE - ACTS OF HOMAGE BY THE SAME MAN TO SEVERAL LORDS.
- TO AVOID CONFLICT OF WHO TO SERVE IN CASE OF DISPUTES BETWEEN HIS LORDS, FEUDAL CUSTOM REQUIRED THE VASSAL TO SELECT ONE OF HIS LORDS AS HIS LIEGE - THE ONE HE MUST SERVE OVER ALL OTHERS.
OBLIGATIONS OF THE LORD
- A LORD OWED HIS VASSAL MILITARY AND MATERIAL SUPPORT.
- A LORD HAD TO HELP HIS VASSAL SUED IN ANOTHER VASSAL'S COURT.
- A LORD GAVE LAND TO HIS VASSAL CALLED A FIEF.
THE FIEF
- GRANTED BY THE LORD IN A CEREMONY CALLED INVESTITURE ALMOST ALWAYS FOLLOWING THE ACT OF HOMAGE.
- THE FIEF WAS AT FIRST NOT HEREDITARY BUT GRADUALLY BECAME PERMANENT AND HEREDITARY.
- BY 13TH CENTURY, FIEFS WERE OFTEN SOLD OR GRANTED - BUT ONLY WITH THE LORD'S PERMISSION.
- VASSALS HELD COURT ON THEIR FIEFS AND PROFITED FROM FINES AND CONFISCATIONS. (PRIVATE JUSTICE WAS A CHARACTERISTIC OF FEUDAL SOCIETY.)
- CASTLES ON THESE FIEFS PROLIFERATED IN THE 11TH AND 12TH CENTURIES.
NORMAN CONQUEST/ENGLAND
- 1066 A.D. - DUKE WILLIAM OF NORMANDY (WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR) DEFEATED THE SAXON HAROLD GODWINSON AT THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS AND BECOMES KING OF ENGLAND.
- THE LAST TIME ENGLAND WAS SUCCESSFULLY INVADED.
- THE INVASION IS DEPICTED ON THE FAMOUS BAYEUX TAPESTRY.
- A STRIP OF LINEN 231 FEET LONG AND 20 INCHES WIDE.
- WILLIAM STRIPPED OLD ANGLO-SAXON NOBILITY OF PRIVILEGES AND POWER.
- WILLIAM INSTITUTED FEUDALISM GRANTING FIEFS TO HIS NORMAN FOLLOWERS - THE ARISTOCRACY OF ENGLAND NOW CONVERSED IN FRENCH.
- 1086 A.D. - OATH OF SALISBURY - VASSALS SWORE ALLEGIANCE TO WILLIAM AS THE KING AND LIEGE LORD OF ALL.
- 1086 A.D. - DOMESDAY BOOK - ORDERED BY WILLIAM.
- COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF THE LANDS OF ENGLAND WHICH INCLUDED A CENSUS (IT SHOWED A POPULATION OF JUST OVER 1 MILLION PEOPLE IN ENGLAND).
1154 A.D. - HENRY II OF ANJOU GREAT GRANDSON OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR, BECOMES THE FIRST OF THE "ANGEVIN" OR "PLANTAGENET" KINGS OF ENGLAND.
- RULED OVER TERRITORIES THAT INCLUDED ENGLAND AND NEARLY ALL OF WESTERN FRANCE.
- HENRY II'S GREATEST CONTRIBUTION WAS IN LAW.
- ROYAL JUSTICE BECAME THE COMMON JUSTICE OF THE KINGDOM THROUGH THE USE OF TRAVELING JUSTICES (JUSTICES IN EYRE - ON JOURNEY) WHO WERE ENDOWED WITH THE AUTHORITY OF THE KING.
- JUSTICES IMPOUNDED 12 "GOOD MEN" AND HAD THEM TESTIFY UNDER OATH OF CRIMES COMMITTED (DIRECT ANCESTOR OF MODERN GRAND JURY).
- THOSE INDICTED BY THE 12 "GOOD MEN" WERE STILL TRIED BY THE ANCIENT ORDEAL OF FIRE AND WATER. (THE CHURCH CONDEMNED THIS TYPE OF PROCEDURE IN 1215 A.D.).
- BARONAL COURTS IN THE FIEFS WERE STILL HELD BUT GRADUALLY WEAKENED BY THESE ROYAL COURTS.
- ROYAL COURTS GRADUALLY LED TO A LEGAL UNIFICATION OF THE REALM - THE DEVELOPMENT OF A "COMMON LAW" APPLICABLE TO THE ENTIRE KINGDOM. (MOST OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD STILL FOLLOWS THE TRADITIONS OF COMMON LAW BASED NOT ON THE WILL OF A KING (ROMAN LAW) BUT RATHER ON THE PRINCIPLES FORMED BY CUSTOMS.)
- HENRY II STRENGTHENED THE CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION.
- THE EXCHEQUER (TREASURY) GREW STRONG DURING HIS REIGN AND ASSURED HIM OF SUBSTANTIAL REVENUE.
- HENRY II BECAME INVOLVED IN A DISPUTE WITH THE CHURCH OVER WHAT HE FELT WAS THE LENIENCY OF CHURCH JUSTICE.
- HE WAS PUT IN DIRECT CONFLICT WITH THOMAS BECKET, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, AND FORMER FRIEND. THOMAS BECKET WAS MURDERED INDIRECTLY BY STATEMENTS MADE BY HENRY II.
- HENRY II REVOKED HIS ATTEMPTED REFORMS OF CHURCH JUSTICE.
- HE PERFORMED PENANCE FOR THE DEATH OF BECKET.
- HENRY II WAS NEVER ABLE TO DOMINATE THE CHURCH ALTHOUGH BY HIS DEATH IN 1189, THE ENGLISH MONARCHY WAS THE STRONGEST IN EUROPE.
FRANCE - THE CAPETIANS
- 987 A.D. - GREAT NOBLES OF FRANCE ELECTED HUGH CAPET AS THEIR KING (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT HAD LARGELY DISAPPEARED AFTER THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE).
- HIS DESCENDANTS WOULD HOLD THE THRONE OF FRANCE UNTIL THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
- HUGH'S POSSESSIONS WERE ONLY THE AREA CALLED THE ILE DE FRANCE (AREA AROUND PARIS).
- LOUIS VI (THE FAT) (1108 - 1137) - UNDER HIM THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY WAS GREATLY STRENGTHENED.
- SUBDUED POWERFUL VASSALS AND ESTABLISHED CONTROL BETWEEN PARIS AND ORLEANS.
- NEW MEN PUT IN POWER FROM MIDDLE RANGES OF SOCIETY.
- ENCOURAGED ECONOMIC GROWTH, e.g., COLONIZATION OF FORESTS.
- THE ABBOTT SUGER OF ST. DENIS WAS HIS CHIEF ADVISOR AND ARCHITECT OF HIS SUCCESSFUL POLICIES.
- PHILIP II AUGUSTUS (1180 - 1226) - GRANDSON OF LOUIS THE FAT. DEFEATED KING JOHN OF ENGLAND AND WON LARGE AMOUNTS OF TERRITORY IN WESTERN FRANCE.
- HE AND HIS SON - LOUIS VIII (1226 - 1270) LED A CRUSADE AGAINST THE ALBIGENSIAN HERETICS OF SOUTHERN FRANCE. BY 1229, THE ALBIGENSIANS WERE TOTALLY DEFEATED AND THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY EXPANDED ITS DOMAIN IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE.
- AROUND 1190 A.D., PHILIP INSTITUTED A SYSTEM SOMEWHAT SIMILAR TO THE ENGLISH SYSTEM OF ITINERANT JUSTICES (JUSTICES IN EYRE) BY APPOINTING OFFICIALS CALLED THE BAILLI.
- THE BAILLI SUPERVISED THE COLLECTION OF ROYAL TAXES AND THE SYSTEM OF JUSTICE ALTHOUGH THEY WERE NEVER AS POWERFUL AS THE ENGLISH JUSTICES IN EYRE.
- CHAMBRE DE COMPTES - SIMILAR TO ENGLISH EXCHEQUER WHICH WAS GIVEN RESPONSIBILITY FOR COORDINATION OF ROYAL FINANCES.
GERMAN EMPIRE
- UNLIKE FRANCE AFTER THE COLLAPSE OF THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE WHICH LEFT THE CENTRAL POWER FRAGMENTED AMONG MANY PETTY LORDS, GERMANY WAS CONCENTRATED IN LARGE TERRITORIAL BLOCKS CLOSE TO THE HOSTILE EASTERN FRONTIER:
SAXONY )
FRANCONIA ) STEM DUCHIES
SWABIA )
BAVARIA )
- IN GERMANY, THE OLD IDEA OF A CHRISTIAN EMPIRE RETAINED MUCH APPEAL.
- GERMAN DUKES CONSIDERED THEMSELVES TO BE THE CHAMPIONS OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH.
- 919 A.D. - GERMAN DUKES ELECTED ONE OF THEIR OWN THE KING - HENRY OF SAXONY. THE SAXON RULERS WERE IN POWER UNTIL 1024 A.D.
- MOST POWERFUL OF SAXON KINGS WAS OTTO I - THE GREAT (936 - 973) WHO WAS PRIMARILY A WARRIOR KING.
- HE DEFEATED THE MAGYARS NEAR AUGSBURG IN 955 A.D. ENDING THEIR MENACE TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE.
- HE CAMPAIGNED SUCCESSFULLY IN ITALY TO RELIEVE THE POPE OF POLITICAL PRESSURE. GERMAN EMPERORS WOULD BECOME INCREASINGLY INVOLVED IN THE AFFAIRS OF ITALY.
- THIS INVOLVEMENT GREATLY HURT THEIR EFFORTS TO GAIN CONTROL OVER THE INDEPENDENT GERMAN PRINCES WHO OFTEN IGNORED THE EMPERORS.
- 962 A.D. HE WAS CROWNED ROMAN EMPEROR BY POPE JOHN XII. IN REALITY HIS POWER NEVER EXTENDED BEYOND GERMANY AND ITALY AND SMALL SURROUNDING PROVINCES.
- HE IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE FIRST OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPERORS ALTHOUGH THE TERM HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE WAS NOT USED UNTIL 1254 A.D.
- FREDERICK I, BARBAROSSA (1152 - 1190)
- CALLED BARBAROSSA MEANING "RED BEARD."
- TRIED TO CREATE A STRONG IMPERIAL DOMAIN BY:
1) FORCING THE GREAT PRINCES IN THE NORTH AND EAST TO BECOME HIS VASSALS.
- HE WAS LARGELY SUCCESSFUL IN THIS ENDEAVOR.
2) EXPANDING HIS POWER IN ITALY.
- WITH THE POPE'S SUPPORT, THE LOMBARD LEAGUE LED BY MILAN DEFEATED FREDERICK AT LUGANO.
- BOTH ITALY AND GERMANY WERE TO REMAIN INTERNALLY DIVIDED THROUGHOUT THE MIDDLE AGES AND WOULD NOT UNITE AS SEPARATE COUNTRIES UNTIL THE 19TH CENTURY.
- HE CALLED HIS EMPIRE THE HOLY EMPIRE. THE TITLE "HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE", AS MENTIONED, WOULD NOT BE USED UNTIL AFTER 1254. THIS EMPIRE WOULD LAST UNTIL THE NAPOLEONIC ERA. TODAY, HISTORIANS USUALLY REFER TO THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE AS BEGINNING WITH OTTO I - THE GREAT ALTHOUGH TECHNICALLY THIS IS NOT ACCURATE.
- FREDERICK DROWNED IN ASIA MINOR WHILE HELPING TO LEAD THE 3RD CRUSADE.
III. REFORM OF THE WESTERN CHURCH
MORAL CRISIS/REFORM
- IN THE POST-CAROLINGIAN PERIOD, AMONG THE SINS RAMPART IN THE CHURCH WAS SIMONY - THE BUYING OR SELLING OF OFFICES OR SACRAMENTS.
- MANY CLERGY INCLUDING SOME POPES, PURCHASED THEIR POSITION AND SACRAMENTS WERE DISPERSED FOR MONEY.
- LANDLORDS, OWNERS OF FIEFS, CONSIDERED THEMSELVES TO BE IN CHARGE OF CHURCHES BUILT ON THEIR PROPERTY.
- EARLY REFORM INCLUDED CLUNIAC MONASTICISM WHEREBY THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE MONASTERY WAS CENTRALIZED UNDER AN ABBOT WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE ONLY TO THE POPE.
- SEVERAL POPES ACTED ASSERTIVELY TO REFORM THE POST-CAROLINGIAN PERIOD.
- POPE LEO IX (1049 - 1054) - FIRST POPE TO MAKE WIDE USE OF PAPAL LEGATES WHO TRAVELED THROUGHOUT EUROPE REFORMING THE CHURCH IN THE NAME OF THE POPE.
- POPE NICHOLAS II (1059-1061) - FIRST POPE TO CONDEMN "LAY INVESTITURE" - RECEIVING CHURCHES AND CHURCH OFFICES FROM LAYMEN.
- 1059 - ROMAN COUNCIL ESTABLISHES THAT POPES WILL BE ELECTED BY COLLEGE OF CARDINALS.
- POPE GREGORY VII (1073 - 1085) - ASSERTED POPE HAD ABSOLUTE AUTHORITY IN SPIRITUAL MATTERS INCLUDING OVERRULING ANY LOCAL BISHOP.
- MAJOR COLLISION BETWEEN GERMAN EMPIRE AND GREGORY VII CAME OVER THE INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY -LAYMEN CLAIMED TO HAVE THE RIGHT TO DISPOSE OF ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICES.
- THE CONTROVERSY LED TO POPE GREGORY VII EXPELLING THE GERMAN EMPEROR HENRY IV IN 1075 A.D.
- PRIMARILY FOR POLITICAL REASONS, HENRY IV PLEADED FOR ABSOLUTION DURING THE FAMOUS INCIDENT AT CANOSSA IN 1077 A.D. NEITHER GREGORY NOR HENRY RESOLVED THE CONTROVERSY WHICH WAS SETTLED AT THE CONCORDAT OF WORMS IN 1122 A.D. BY EMPEROR HENRY V AND POPE CALIXTUS II IN WHICH THEY AGREED THAT BISHOPS AND ABBOTS WOULD HAVE TO BE ACCEPTABLE TO BOTH PARTIES.
- THE CHURCH CONTINUED TO CENTRALIZE ITS POWER UNDER THE POPE AND UNDER THE LEADERSHIP OF MANY CANON LAWYERS.
- THE CLERGY REMAINED CELIBATE.
- THE CHURCH CONTINUED TO BUILD ON ITS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM FOR ITS CLERGY.
IV. CULTURAL REVIVAL
RISE OF UNIVERSITIES
- UP UNTIL 1050 A.D., MONASTIC SCHOOLS HAD DOMINATED INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE WEST.
- FROM 1050 TO 1200 A.D., THE CATHEDRAL, OR BISHOP'S SCHOOL ASSUMED INTELLECTUAL LEADERSHIP IN THE WEST.
- THE GROWTH OF CITIES AND GREGORIAN EMPHASIS ON A TRAINED CLERGY HELPED TO REVIVE THIS TYPE OF SCHOOL.
- TEACHERS AND STUDENTS ROAMED FROM CITY TO CITY SEEKING THE BEST EDUCATION.
- TOWNSPEOPLE OFTEN REGISTERED COMPLAINTS WITH THE BISHOPS ABOUT STUDENTS AND RIOTS BETWEEN TOWN AND GOWN WERE COMMONPLACE.
- CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS GRADUALLY INSISTED THAT MASTERS POSSESS A CERTIFICATION OF THEIR LEARNING (A LICENSE TO TEACH).
- MASTERS AND STUDENTS GRADUALLY GROUPED THEMSELVES INTO GUILDS TO PROTECT THEIR COMMON INTEREST (UNIVERSITAS WAS A LATIN WORD FOR GUILD).
SCHOLASTICISM
- REFERS TO ALL THE SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE 4 GREAT FACULTIES:
1) THE ARTS
2) LAW - ROMAN AND CANONICAL
3) MEDICINE
4) THEOLOGY
- IN A NARROWER SENSE, THE MEANING OF SCHOLASTICISM WAS ON THEOLOGY - THE "QUEEN OF THE SCIENCES."
- SCHOLASTICISM WAS THE APPLICATION OF DIALECTIC (ANALYZING THE LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG PROPOSITIONS IN A DIALOGUE OR DISCOURSE) TO CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY. AMONG THINKERS WHO EXPLORED THE THEOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF DIALECTIC WAS:
- ST. ANSLEM OF CANTERBURY (1033 - 1109). HIS GREATEST WORK WAS THE PROSLOGIUM.
- PETER ABELARD (1079 - 1142). HIS GREATEST WORK WAS SIC ET NON (YES AND NO) WHICH WAS A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOLASTICISM. SPEND MANY YEARS LECTURING IN PARIS.
VERNACULAR LITERATURE
- FOR MOST OF THE MAJOR LANGUAGES OF EUROPE, AN ABUNDANT TRADITION OF LITERARY WORK DATES ONLY FROM THE 11TH AND 12TH CENTURIES.
- THREE PRINCIPAL GENRES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE:
1) HEROIC EPIC (CHANSONS DE GESTE) - SURVIVED IN GREAT ABUNDANCE. THE OLDEST AND BEST OF THEM IS SONG OF ROLAND COMPOSED IN NORTHERN FRENCH AND DEALING WITH THE AMBUSH OF THE REAR GUARD OF CHARLEMAGNE'S ARMY. THE POET USES PSYCHOLOGICAL DISCERNMENT IN EXAMINING ROLAND'S CHARACTER.
2) TROUBADOUR LYRIC POETRY - INITIALLY WRITTEN IN SOUTHERN FRENCH. THIS TYPE OF POETRY CELEBRATES WOMEN AND LOVE. THESE POEMS WERE SUNG AT COURT. THE EMOTION OF LOVE WAS INTENSIVELY EXPLORED.
3) COURTLY ROMANCE - COMBINES BOTH TRAITS OF HEROIC EPIC AND TROUBADOUR LYRIC POETRY.
- IT IS NARRATIVE IN FORM LIKE THE EPIC YET IT GIVES A MAJOR ROLE TO WOMEN AND LOVE. THE STORIES OF KING ARTHUR ARE AN EXAMPLE OF THIS TYPE OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE.
ROMANESQUE ART
- CONVENTIONAL TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE ARCHITECTURAL AND ARTISTIC STYLE OF THIS PERIOD. IT MEANS "OF ROMAN ORIGINS" WHICH IS SOMEWHAT MISLEADING IN THAT WHILE ARTISTS DREW ON CLASSICAL MODELS, THEY ALSO DREW ON OTHER ARTISTIC TRADITION INCLUDING BARBARIAN, BYZANTINE AND ARAB.
- ART, IN MOST OF ITS FORMS, REMAINED DEDICATED TO RELIGIOUS THEMES OF THE CHURCH.
- CHURCHES WERE THE MOST IMPRESSIVE MONUMENTS OF THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD.
- ROMANESQUE STYLE, UNLIKE BYZANTINE, OVERFLOWS WITH MOVEMENT, TENSION AND MYSTICAL EXHILARATION.