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| Western Civilization I page. |
I. FOUNDING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
RULE OF AUGUSTUS (OCTAVIAN)
- HE RESTORED THE APPEARANCE, BUT NOT THE REALITY, OF THE REPUBLIC.
- HE AVOIDED OFFENSIVE DISPLAYS OF AUTHORITY (HE NEVER ANNOUNCED THAT HE WAS CONVERTING THE REPUBLIC TO THE EMPIRE).
- 27 B.C. - SENATE CONFERRED ON OCTAVIAN THE NAME AUGUSTUS WHICH MEANS BLESSED OR FORTUNATE.
- HE ALSO ASSUMED CONTROL OF AN ENORMOUS PROVINCIAL COMMAND (INCLUDING FARTHER SPAIN, THE NEWLY EXPANDED GAUL, AND SYRIA IN THIS YEAR).
- 23 B.C. - HIS IMPERIUM (POWER OF COMMAND) WAS EXTENDED TO COVER THE WHOLE ROMAN WORLD. HE ALSO RECEIVED THE POWER OF A TRIBUNE (ALTHOUGH HE WAS A PATRICIAN BY HIS ADOPTION BY JULIUS CAESAR). THIS POWER GAVE HIM THE APPEARANCE OF PATRON AND DEFENDER OF THE COMMON PEOPLE.
- HE WAS USUALLY REFERRED TO AS THE PRINCEPS - DENOTING THE SENIOR EX-CONSUL IN THE SENATE.
- HIS RULE WAS ABSOLUTE.
- HE PROVIDED CASH PAYMENTS FROM THE PUBLIC TREASURY TO SOLDIERS WHO HAD SERVED FOR 20 YEARS.
- HE THUS SECURED LOYALTY OF THE LEGIONS TO THE STATE AND NOT TO THE GENERALS.
- HE GAVE SECURITY TO THE EMPIRE BY EXTENDING AND SOLIDIFYING THE NORTHERN FRONTIER.
- PROVINCES NORTH OF ITALY NOW REACHED THE RHINE AND DANUBE RIVERS.
- HE CREATED THE PRAETORIAN GUARD STATIONED IN ROME.
- GROUP OF 9000 MEN RECRUITED FROM ITALIANS (NOT PROVINCIALS EVEN IF CITIZENS).
- THIS GROUP SERVED AS ROME'S POLICE FORCE AND AUGUSTUS' PERSONAL BODYGUARD.
- ASSUMED OFFICE OF PANTIFEX MAXIMUS (HIGH PRIEST).
- CREATED RELIGIOUS REVIVAL OF OLD ROMAN RELIGION. REBUILT ROMAN TEMPLES (FROM BRICK INTO MARBLE). WAS DEIFIED ON HIS DEATH.
- HE LEGISLATED IN FAVOR OF THE FAMILY.
- LAWS AIMED AT REPOPULATING ITALY.
- DIED IN 14 A.D.
- DURING AUGUSTUS'S REIGN THE:
- ROMAN EMPIRE ENJOYED EXPANSION
- ROMAN EMPIRE ENJOYED NO CIVIL WARS
- ROMAN EMPIRE ENJOYED NO MAJOR PROVINCIAL WARS
II. EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT
3 UNIFYING ELEMENTS MADE THE EMPIRE EFFICIENT:
1) A STRONG ACTIVE EMPEROR.
2) STRONG CIVIL SERVANTS AND CITY COUNCILS OF THE VARIOUS TOWNS.
3) A STRONG ARMY.
- KEY UNIT WAS THE LEGION CONSISTING OF ALMOST 6,000 MEN.
- ALMOST ALL WERE INFANTRY TROOPS.
- A LEGIONARY SIGNED ON FOR 20 YEARS.
- NO LEGIONARY OF HUMBLE BIRTH COULD EXPECT TO ENTER THE OFFICER CLASS.
- RECRUITS HAS TO UNDERGO A RIGOROUS SCREENING INCLUDING PASSING A MEDICAL EXAMINATION TO ENSURE PHYSICAL SOUNDNESS INCLUDING GOOD EYESIGHT.
- TRAINING CLASS WAS VERY RIGOROUS.
- IT WAS THE ARMY THAT FOR CENTURIES ENFORCED THE PAX ROMANA.
SUCCESSORS OF AUGUSTUS
- TIBERIUS, SON OF AUGUSTUS' WIFE LIVIA (AUGUSTUS HAD ONLY ONE DAUGHTER) SUCCEEDED AUGUSTUS AT LIVIA'A URGING.
- IN RECOGNIZING TIBERIUS, THE SENATE CONFIRMED THE PRINCIPAL OF DYNASTIC SUCCESSION THUS ESTABLISHING THAT AN EMPIRE, NOT A REPUBLIC, NOW EXISTED.
- THE DYNASTIC LINE ESTABLISHED BY AUGUSTUS CALLED JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY LASTED UNTIL 68 A.D.
- THIS DYNASTIC LINE WAS WEAK AND INCLUDED CALIGULA WHO SUFFERED FROM INSANITY. THE LAST EMPEROR OF THIS DYNASTY, NERO, WAS ONE OF THE WORST OF ALL ROMAN EMPERORS.
- 64 A.D. - GREAT FIRE DESTROYS MUCH OF ROME UNDER NERO'S RULE.
- THE PROCESS OF CENTRALIZATION OF POWER CONTINUED. THE SENATE AND ASSEMBLIES CONTINUED TO BE WEAKENED WHILE CIVIL BUREAUCRATS INCREASED AND THE PRAETORIAN GUARD BECAME STRONGER.
- EMPIRE CONTINUED TO EXPAND, e.g., 47 A.D. - BRITAIN ANNEXED AS PROVINCE OF THE EMPIRE.
- 69 A.D. - VESPIAN EMERGED AS FOUNDER OF FLAVIAN DYNASTY.
- THE POWER OF EMPEROR IS STRENGTHENED WHILE POWER OF SENATE AND ASSEMBLIES CONTINUED TO WEAKEN.
FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (96-180 A.D.)
1) NERVA (96-98 A.D.) BECAME THE FIRST OF THESE EMPERORS. HE ADOPTED TRAJAN, AND DESIGNATED HIM AS SUCCESSOR.
- HE THUS STARTED A SYSTEM WHEREBY AN EMPEROR WOULD CHOOSE A QUALIFIED SUCCESSOR AND ADOPT HIM AS HIS SON. THIS SYSTEM REMAINED IN USE FOR NEARLY A CENTURY.
- NERVA RULED FOR ONLY 2 YEARS AND THEN ADOPTED TRAJAN.
2) TRAJAN (98-117 A.D.) - CHOSEN BECAUSE OF HIS HIGH MILITARY REPUTATION.
- RULED WITH FAIRNESS AND FREEDOM AND WAS LATER VIEWED AS A MODEL EMPEROR.
- EMPIRE REACHES ITS FARTHEST EXTENSION TO THE EAST AS TRAJAN LED TROOPS DOWN THE TIGRIS - EUPHRATES VALLEY (MESOPOTAMIA) TO THE HEAD OF THE PERSIAN GULF.
- HE FORMED TWO NEW PROVINCES OUT OF THIS AREA CALLED ASSYRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA. REVOLTS MADE THE PROVINCES IMPOSSIBLE TO HOLD AND HE THEREFORE RETREATED TOWARD SYRIA WHERE HE DIED ON THE WAY.
3) HADRIAN (117-138 A.D.)
- FORMERLY WITHDREW FROM EXTREME EASTERN AREAS CONQUERED BY TRAJAN.
- WEAKENED ASSEMBLIES AND RARELY EVER CONSULTED WITH THE SENATE BUT RATHER WAS ADVISED BY INFORMAL COUNCIL KNOWN AS THE "FRIENDS" OF THE EMPEROR (AMICI).
- COUNCIL INCLUDED SALVIUS JULIANUS - LEADING EXPERT IN ROMAN LAW WHO COLLECTED EDICTS FROM PAST PRAETORS IN AN ATTEMPT TO STANDARDIZE PROCEDURES OF CIVIL LAW.
- HADRIAN'S LAWS WERE OFTEN FAIR AND HUMANE.
- CONDITIONS OF SOLDIERS AND SLAVES IMPROVED.
- WOMEN OBTAINED THE SAME RIGHTS AS MEN IN COURT.
- LIKE TRAJAN, HE UNDERTOOK A VAST BUILDING PROGRAM, e.g., CREATED LARGEST SINGLE EXTENSION OF THE FORUM. UNDERTOOK VARIOUS BUILDING PROJECTS IN THE PROVINCES, e.g., "HADRIAN'S WALL" ACROSS NORTHERN ENGLAND TO PROTECT ROMAN AREAS FROM THE CELTIC TRIBES TO THE NORTH.
4) ANTONIUS PIUS (138-161 A.D.)
- RULE OF ANTONIUS PIUS WAS PEACEFUL AND PROSPEROUS.
5) MARCUS AURELIUS (161-180 A.D.)
- HADRIAN SAW TO THE SUCCESSION OF BOTH THESE EMPERORS.
- RULE OF MARCUS AURELIUS SAW THE END OF THIS PEACEFULNESS AND PROSPERITY.
- MARCUS AURELIUS HAD TO FIGHT INVASIONS FROM TRIBES ON THE DANUBE RIVER AND THE EAST.
- ARMY RETURNED FROM THE EAST IN THE 160's A.D. BRINGING WITH IT PLAGUE WHICH SERIOUSLY WEAKENED ROME AND THE EMPIRE.
- MARCUS AURELIUS GAVE UP PRACTICE OF ADOPTION BY CHOOSING HIS WORTHLESS SON COMMODUS (180-192 A.D.) WHOSE EXTRAVAGANCE AND CRUELTY WERE REMINISCENT OF NERO.
ECONOMY - EARLY EMPIRE
- ECONOMIC LIFE IN ITALY AND THE PROVINCES REACHED A LEVEL OF PROSPERITY THAT EUROPE WOULD NOT SEE AGAIN FOR 1000 YEARS.
- ROME REACHED ABOUT 1 MILLION INHABITANTS.
- CIVIL ENGINEERS AND ADMINISTRATORS WERE ABLE TO DEAL WITH CHALLENGES OF ACCEPTABLE STANDARDS OF PUBLIC HYGIENE.
- THE CITY WAS THE TRADE CENTER OF THE WORLD WITH OSTIA AS THE CITY'S HARBOR.
- IN WESTERN PROVINCES, CITIES WERE SMALL.
- IN EASTERN PROVINCES, CITIES WERE OFTEN LARGER, e.g., ALEXANDRIA - 400,000 INHABITANTS; EPHESUS - 200,000 INHABITANTS.
- ECONOMY IN THE EASTERN PART OF THE EMPIRE WAS STRONGER THAN IN THE WESTERN PART.
- AGRICULTURE REMAINED BASIC SUPPORT OF THE ECONOMY (APPROXIMATELY 75% OF THE TOTAL PRODUCT OF THE EMPIRE).
- LATIFUNDIA (LARGE SLAVE - RUN ESTATES) HAD REPLACED SMALL FARMS DURING THE LATE REPUBLIC.
- LATIFUNDIA SUPPLIED CITIES WITH BUILDING STONES, LUMBER FOR BUILDING AND TO KEEP ROMAN BATHS WARM. THIS LED TO EXTENSIVE DEFORESTATION WHILE OVERGRAZING LED TO EROSION OF THE LAND.
- PROVINCES OFTEN SURPASSED ITALY IN AGRICULTURAL IMPORTANCE, e.g., SPANISH WINE BECAME PREFERRED OVER ITALIAN WINE AND POTTERY MADE IN GAUL REPLACED ITALIAN POTTERY EVEN IN ITALY.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
- WEALTHY HAD RUNNING WATER TAPPED INTO THEIR HOMES AND THEY OWNED SLAVES. THEY HAD COUNTRY VILLAS FOR RECREATION.
- CITIES HAD SUBURBS AND RESORTS, e.g., POMPEII WAS A COMMERCIAL CITY WHILE ITS NEIGHBOR HERCULANEUM WAS RESIDENTIAL.
- NICER HOMES WERE THOSE BUILT AROUND AN ATRIUM AND DECORATED WITH WALL PAINTINGS WHICH OFTEN SHOWED LANDSCAPES.
- WORKERS OF ROME USUALLY HAD FLIMSY AND FLAMMABLE APARTMENTS WHICH LACKED RUNNING WATER (ALTHOUGH WATER WAS ALWAYS NEARBY BECAUSE OF AQUEDUCTS). PUBLIC BATHS WERE ALSO CHEAP AND HEAVILY UTILIZED.
- THEY WORKED 6-7 HOURS A DAY AND THERE WERE ABOUT 160 HOLIDAYS A YEAR!
- MAJOR AMUSEMENTS INCLUDED CHARIOT RACES ESPECIALLY THOSE AT THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS. PEOPLE ALSO ENJOYED BRUTAL CONTESTS, e.g., BETWEEN GLADIATORS OR BETWEEN MEN AND ANIMALS.
- THE COLOSSEUM WAS THE MAIN ARENA IN ROME AND HELD ABOUT 50,000 SPECTATORS.
- ROMANS ALWAYS ATE IN A RECLINING POSITION WITHOUT KNIFE OR FORK.
- ROME WAS ABLE TO SUPPORT HALF ITS POPULATION AT PUBLIC EXPENSE.
- THIS STRAINED THE EMPIRE IN THE LATER YEARS.
- MEN FROM THE PROVINCES ENTERED THE ROMAN LEGIONS ESPECIALLY DURING THE SECOND CENTURY.
LAW
- ROMANS DISTINGUISHED THEIR OWN CITIZENS FROM MEMBERS OF THEIR EMPIRE WHO DID NOT POSSESS CITIZENSHIP.
- CITIZENS WERE SUBJECT TO THE CIVIL LAW (IUS CIVILE).
- THE REST OFTEN KEPT THEIR OWN CUSTOMS WHICH FORMED THE LAW OF OTHER NATIONS IN GENERAL (IUS GENTIUM). EVENTUALLY THE IUS GENTIUM REPLACED THE IUS CIVILE.
- THE LAW CONTINUED TO MODIFY DURING THE EARLY EMPIRE. JURISTS (IURISPRUDENTES) WERE PRIVATE CITIZENS WHO UNDERSTOOD THE LAW, OFTEN ADVISED JUDGES, AND THUS PLAYED AN IMPORTANT LEGAL ROLE.
- PRAETORS OFTEN ISSUED EDICTS WHICH EXPLAINED HOW THEY WOULD INTERPRET THE LAW DURING THEIR YEAR IN OFFICE.
- ROME DESIGNED AND PRESERVED A SYSTEM OF LAWS GOVERNING THE BEHAVIOR OF CITIZENS THAT WOULD SERVE AS A MODEL FOR THE LAW OF WESTERN EUROPE (EXCEPT THE ENGLISH SPEAKING NATIONS).
ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
- NETWORK OF ROADS REMAIN AS ONE OF THE MOST ENDURING MONUMENTS TO ROMAN ENGINEERING.
- HEAVY BLOCKS SET IN LAYERS OF CRUSHED STONES.
- ORIGINALLY DESIGNED AS HIGHWAYS FOR THE RAPID MOVEMENT OF THE MILITARY, THEY LATER BECAME FAMOUS TRADE ROUTES.
- AQUEDUCTS AND A SYSTEM OF SEWERS ALSO MADE LARGE CITIES POSSIBLE.
- ROMANS PLACED MORE EMPHASIS ON PERSONAL CLEANLINESS THAN ANY OTHER CIVILIZATION UNTIL MODERN TIMES. IMMENSE PUBLIC BATHS INCLUDED THE BATHS OF CARACALLA BUILT IN THE 3RD CENTURY. ROMAN BATHS SERVED AS SOCIAL CENTERS.
- IN ARCHITECTURE, ROMANS ADAPTED GREEK TECHNIQUES TO ROMAN TASTE.
- TEMPLES SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS (ROMANS LIKED ESPECIALLY THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL).
- ROMANS PERFORMED THEIR CEREMONIES INSIDE LARGE TEMPLES; GREEKS RESERVED THE INTERIOR AS A ROOM FOR THE DIETIES. THE ARCH AND CONCRETE ALLOWED FOR THE CREATION OF LARGER SPACES. THE ARCH WAS PROMINENT IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS, AQUEDUCTS AND TRIUMPHAL ARCHES COMMEMORATING IMPERIAL VICTORIES. THE ROMANS INVENTED CONCRETE WHICH WAS THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIAL.
POETS
- VIRGIL (70-19 B.C.) WAS THE MOST FAMOUS LATIN POET. HE BORROWED FROM GREEK MODELS.
- HIS GREATEST WORK IS THE AENEID WHICH BORROWED AND TRANSFORMED MATERIAL FROM HOMER. IT WAS A PATRIOTIC ROMAN EPIC.
- HORACE (65-8 B.C.) DEALT WAS THE FEELINGS OF EVERYDAY LIFE. HIS WORKS INCLUDED ODES, EPODES AND SERMONS.
- OVID (43 B.C. - 17 A.D.?) - MOST POLISHED POET OF LOVE. HIS FAMOUS WORKS INCLUDED ARS AMATORIA (THE ART OF LOVE) WHICH DEALT WITH HOW TO FIND AND KEEP MISTRESSES AND LOVERS. HIS MOST COMPLEX POEM IS METAMORPHOSES (A SERIES OF 15 MYTHOLOGICAL TALES).
- JUVENAL (60 ? - 130 A.D.?) WROTE AS A SATIRIST.
- HIS WORKS DENOUNCE PRIDE AND ELEGANCE IN ROMAN SOCIETY AND HIS LANGUAGE IS COLORFUL, BITTER AND OBSCENE. HIS FAMOUS EPIGRAM WAS "MENS SANA IN CORPORE SANO."
HISTORIANS
- LIVY (59 B.C. - 17 A.D.) - WROTE HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC.
- HIS ROMAN HISTORY IS A PROSE EPIC FILLED WITH PATRIOTISM.
- OFTEN CRITICIZED FOR USING UNRELIABLE SOURCES.
- TACITUS (55 - 120 A.D.) - MUCH LIKE THUCYDIDES IN ACCURACY AND SERIOUSNESS. MAJOR WORKS INCLUDED:
HISTORIES, WHICH WAS A HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE FROM 69-96 A.D.
- HE TREATED NEARLY ALL OF HIS MAIN CHARACTERS AS SELFISH OR CORRUPT.
- HIS OTHER MAJOR WORK IS ANNALS, WHICH COVERED THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN EMPERORS (EXCEPT AUGUSTUS). HE SAW VERY LITTLE GOOD IN THESE EMPERORS.
- SEUTONIUS (70 ? - 130 A.D.) - HIS MAJOR WORK WAS LIVES OF THE CAESARS WHICH WAS ABOUT THE RULERS OF ROME FROM JULIUS CAESAR THROUGH DOMITIAN.
SLAVERY
- NO OTHER SOCIETY HAD USED SLAVES AS EXTENSIVELY AS THE ROMANS, e.g., OF THE 7.5 MILLION INHABITANTS OF ITALY AT THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS, 3 MILLION WERE SLAVES!
- SLAVES WERE NOT RESTRICTED TO A SINGLE ETHNIC GROUP.
- MANY SLAVES WERE EMPLOYED ON THE LATIFUNDIAS.
- SLAVES WERE BETTER TREATED IN THE CITIES WHERE THEY WERE EMPLOYED IN ALMOST EVERY OCCUPATION.
- SLAVES FROM THE EAST, ESPECIALLY GREEKS, TUTORED CHILDREN OF THE FREE CLASSES.
- SLAVES WERE ALLOWED TO ACCUMULATE PROPERTY AND OFTEN THEY COULD BUY THEIR FREEDOM.
- PROBLEMS OF SLAVERY:
1) THE CREATION OF INCENTIVES WAS DIFFICULT IN ASSURING THAT PRODUCERS WILL LABOR HARD AND EFFICIENTLY. OFTEN COERCION WAS THE PRINCIPAL INCENTIVE THAT KEPT SLAVES AT THEIR TASKS.
- THE ASSOCIATION OF SLAVERY WITH PHYSICAL LABOR TOOK AWAY THE DIGNITY OF PHYSICAL WORK.
- THERE WAS LITTLE INTEREST IN TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION TO ALLEVIATE DRUDGERY OF PHYSICAL LABOR (NO-LABOR SAVING DEVICES).
2) THE RECRUITMENT OF ADDITIONAL WORKERS
- DEMORALIZED SLAVES WERE POOR PRODUCERS OF CHILDREN.
- RECRUITMENT OF SLAVES CAME PRIMARILY FROM WARS OF CONQUEST. WARS OF CONQUEST, HOWEVER, VIRTUALLY CEASED AFTER HADRIAN. DECLINING NUMBERS OF SLAVES MEANT REDUCED OUTPUT.
THE POOR
- IN ITALY AND MANY OF THE PROVINCES, RURAL DEPOPULATION TO THE CITIES LEFT MANY CULTIVATED FIELDS ABANDONED. REASONS FOR THIS ABANDONMENT INCLUDED:
- LURE OF THE CITIES
- NEGATIVISM ASSOCIATED WITH SERVILE LABOR
- LOW BIRTH RATES AMONG THE POOR RURAL CLASSES
- EMPERORS TRIED TO ATTRACT FREE ROMAN CULTIVATORS BACK TO THE COUNTRYSIDE.
- FREE CULTIVATORS THAT SETTLED ON ANOTHER'S LAND IS CALLED A COLONUS. CULTIVATORS PAID FIXED RENT TO THE LANDLORD (DOMINUS). HE COULD SELL THE LAND OR PASS IT ON TO HIS HEIRS.
- IN THE LATER EMPIRE, THE GOVERNMENT BURDENED THE COLONI WITH OPPRESSIVE TAXES, RUTHLESSLY REQUISITIONED FOOD FROM THEM, AND BOUND THEM AND THEIR CHILDREN TO THE LAND (MUCH LIKE A SERF). THIS BECAME MORE COMMON AS THE EMPIRE BECAME DESPERATE FOR REVENUE.
- THIS CHANGE IN PRACTICE BY THE GOVERNMENT LED TO VIOLENT SOCIAL UPHEAVALS BY THE PEASANTS, e.g., REVOLTS.
PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONS
- INCORPORATION WITHIN THE EMPIRE AND LOYALTY TO IT GUARANTEED THE NATIONS PEACE, PROTECTION AND PRACTICE.
- GRECO-ROMAN CULTURE DID NOT ALWAYS APPEAL TO THE BROAD MASSES OF THE EMPIRE, e.g., IN THE EAST, LARGELY SEMITIC PEOPLES RETAINED THEIR OWN CULTURES AND LANGUAGES.
- WHILE THE FRONTIER DEFENSES (LIMES) KEPT HOSTILE BARBARIAN ARMIES OUT, IT DID NOT EXCLUDE CONTINUOUS PEACEFUL PENETRATION OF BARBARIANS INTO THE EMPIRE.
- THE "PENURIA HOMINUM" (SHORTAGE OF PEOPLE) BROUGHT BARBARIANS INTO THE EMPIRE TO WORK DESERTED FIELDS.
III. CHRISTIANITY
JEWS IN THE EMPIRE
- 64 B.C. - POMPEY CONQUERED THE INDEPENDENT KINGDOM OF JEWS ESTABLISHED BY THE FAMILY OF JUDAS MACABAEUS.
- THEY ENJOYED SOME TOLERATION, DESPITE THE LOSS OF POLITICAL POWER, IN THE VERY EARLY EMPIRE.
- 66-70 A.D. - JEWISH WAR AGAINST ROME WHICH RESULTED IN DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM AND DEMOLITION OF THE TEMPLE EXCEPT ONE WALL (THE WAILING WALL) AT WHICH JEWS WERE ALLOWED TO PRAY ONCE A YEAR.
- ATTEMPTS BY ROME TO SUPPRESS THE JEWISH FAITH WERE NOT SUCCESSFUL.
EARLY CHRISTIANITY
- JESUS WROTE NOTHING AND THEREFORE HE CAN BE VIEWED ONLY THROUGH ORAL TRADITION AND THE WRITINGS OF OTHERS, i.e., THE EVANGALISTS IN THE GOSPELS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT AND EARLY CONVERTS SUCH AS ST. PAUL.
- ABOUT 30 A.D. JESUS WAS CRUCIFIED AND HIS FOLLOWERS BEGAN TO CALL THEMSELVES CHRISTIANS.
- THE MAN MOST RESPONSIBLE FOR CLARIFYING AND REFORMING EARLY CHRISTIANITY WAS A JEW NAMED SAUL (CHANGED TO PAUL).
- HE IS THE BEST KNOWN OF EARLY CHRISTIAN TEACHERS AND MUCH OF HIS TEACHINGS ARE IN THE BOOK ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
- PAUL BEGAN HIS MISSION IN DAMASCUS (SYRIA) AND ORGANIZED CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES.
- IT WAS HE THAT DEVELOPED THE FIRST COHERENT CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.
- HE REJECTED THE WISH OF SOME EARLY CHRISTIANS TO RESTRICT THE PREACHING OF CHRISTIANITY TO ONLY JEWS. HE OPENED CHRISTIANITY TO THE GENTILES.
- PAUL TAUGHT THAT CHRISTIANS WERE THE HEIRS AND SUCCESSORS OF THE JEWISH TRADITION.
- BY 300 A.D. DESPITE ITS ILLEGALITY AND PERSECUTION WITHIN THE EMPIRE, THE CHRISTIAN MESSAGE CONTINUED TO SPREAD THROUGHOUT THE ROMAN WORLD.
- MANY CONVERTS WERE FROM LOWER CLASSES IN SOCIETY.
- AMONG THE EMPERORS, DIOCLETIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS (303 - 312 A.D.) PERSECUTED CHRISTIANS THE MOST.
- 312 A.D. - CONVERSION OF EMPEROR CONSTANTINE TO CHRISTIANITY MARKED A REVOLUTION IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EARLY CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE.
- BY THIS TIME CHRISTIANITY WAS NO LONGER THE RELIGION OF JUST THE POOR.
- CONSTANTINE EXTENDED COMPLETE FREEDOM OF WORSHIP TO CHRISTIANS THUS ENDING THE PERSECUTIONS.
- CHRISTIANITY DID NOT BECOME THE OFFICIAL RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE UNTIL 381 A.D. UNDER EMPEROR THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
- HERESIES STRENGTHENED THE EARLY CHURCH BY FORCING IT TO REDEFINE ITS POSITIONS. THE EARLY CHURCH HAD TO ENDURE SCHISMS INCLUDING:
1) DONATISTS WANTED PRIESTS WHO HAD SURRENDERED TO THE DEMANDS OF EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN (TRAITORS) DECLARED UNFORGIVEN EVEN IF THEY WERE NOW REPENTANT.
- ALL THE SACRAMENTS THAT THEY HAD PERFORMED, e.g., BAPTISMS, MARRIAGES, WERE DEEMED WORTHLESS BY THE DONATISTS.
2) TEACHINGS OF ARIUS OF ALEXANDRIA IN THE 320's A.D. THAT JESUS WAS NOT CO-EQUAL WITH THE FATHER IN THE TRINITY.
- CONSTANTINE HELPED TO RESTORE PEACE AMONG THEOLOGIANS BY CALLING FOR A COUNCIL AT NICAEA (ASIA MINOR) IN 325 A.D.
- ARIUS' TEACHINGS WERE CONDEMNED AND THE NICENE CREED DECLARED JESUS WAS CO-EQUAL WITH THE FATHER.
- THE COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON IN 451 A.D. CLEARLY DEFINED THE NATURE OF JESUS AS ONE PERSON WITH TWO NATURES JOINED IN UNION, BOTH TRUE GOD AND TRUE MAN.
- GRADUALLY A FORMAL GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED WITHIN THE CHURCH WHICH GAVE CHRISTIANITY A STABLE ADMINISTRATION.
- BISHOPS GREW IN POWER AND THOSE IN CITIES WITH LARGE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES, e.g., ROME, ALEXANDRIA, AND ANTIOCH BECAME THE MOST INFLUENTIAL.
- THE BISHOP OF ROME BECAME THE HEAD OF THE CHURCH IN THE WEST - THE ONLY ONE TO BE CALLED "POPE".
- FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
- THE NEW TESTAMENT, WRITTEN FIRST IN GREEK, WAS A MAJOR VEHICLE THAT BROUGHT CHRISTIANITY TO EDUCATED PEOPLE. WRITINGS OF THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH WAS A COLLECTION OF COMMENTARIES AND TEACHINGS.
GREEK
- SEVERAL GREEK FATHERS WROTE IN ALEXANDRIA AND INCLUDED 1) CLEMENT, 2) ORIGIN (A PUPIL OF CLEMENT) IS CONSIDERED ONE OF THE MOST INFLUENTIAL OF ALL FATHERS IN BOTH VOLUME AND SCHOLARSHIP AND 3) EUSEBIUS WAS ANOTHER GREEK FATHER WHO WROTE IN CAESAREA. HIS GREATEST WORK IS HIS CHRONICLE (ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SOURCES OF ANCIENT HISTORY).
LATIN
- FATHERS WHO WROTE IN LATIN INCLUDED:
1) AMBROSE - BISHOP OF MILAN
- STATED THE CHURCH MUST BE INDEPENDENT OF DIRECTION BY THE EMPEROR.
- HE HAD THEODOSIUS EXCOMMUNICATED (COULD NOT RECEIVE THE SACRAMENTS) IN 390 A.D.
2) JEROME - WHO SUCCEEDED EUSEBIUS AS THE MOST LEARNED CHURCH FATHER OF HIS TIME.
- HE TRANSLATED BOTH THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT IN LATIN (THE VULGATE VERSION OF THE BIBLE) WHICH WAS THE MOST INFLUENTIAL BOOK EVER WRITTEN IN LATIN.
AUGUSTINE (354 - 430 A.D.) - BEST KNOWN OF THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH WAS BORN IN NORTH AFRICA.
- UNDER AMBROSE'S INFLUENCE, HE CONVERTED TO CHRISTIANITY.
- BECAME BISHOP OF HIPPO (NORTH AFRICA) IN 395 A.D.
- VOLUMINOUS WRITER WHO HAD PROFOUND INFLUENCE ON TEACHINGS OF MORALITY AND MARRIAGE.
- AUGUSTINE SAW LITTLE PURPOSE IN FURTHER PROCREATION (HUMAN RACE HAD REACHED ITS LIMITS).
- PASSIONATELY INTERESTED ON THE EFFECTS OF GRACE.
- ONE OF HIS BEST WORKS, AN INTENSELY PERSONAL AUTOBIOGRAPHY THAT DEALT WITH GRACE IN HIS OWN LIFE WAS HIS CONFESSIONS.
- HE DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN GOD THE CREATOR AND GOD THE REDEEMER.
- HIS GREATEST WORK, CITY OF GOD, DEALT WITH ORDER IN THE UNIVERSE AND GOD DIRECTING PEOPLE THROUGH GRACE.
- THE GRACE OF GOD UNITED THE CHOSEN IN A COMMUNITY OR CITY WHICH WAS SET AGAINST THOSE JOINED BY THE LOVE OF EARTHLY THINGS.
- THE CHOSEN BELONGED TO A HEAVENLY CITY WHICH WOULD BE THEIR EVERLASTING HOME.
IV. LATE ROMAN EMPIRE
AFTER THE DEATH OF COMMODUS (192 A.D.), LEADERS OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD AND THE ARMY BEGAN TO MURDER EMPERORS AND REPLACE THEM WITH OTHERS WHO WERE ALSO EVENTUALLY MURDERED. TWO OF THE STABILIZING ELEMENTS OF THE EMPIRE FELL APART:
1) A STRONG, EFFECTIVE EMPEROR
2) A DISCIPLINED ARMY
- THE SENATE HAD NO POWER TO INTERVENE IN AFFAIRS OF THE STATE.
- THE ECONOMY BECAME GREATLY WEAKENED.
1) SHARP RISE IN COST OF DEFENSE TO PROTECT THE BORDERS.
2) INHABITANTS OF ROME HAD BEEN SUPPLIED WITH FREE FOOD AND GAMES.
3) SHORTAGE OF SILVER (ON WHICH THE IMPERIAL CURRENCY WAS BASED).
- EMPERORS TRIED TO DEPRECIATE THE CURRENCY BUT THIS RESULTED IN HOARDING OF SILVER AND SUBSEQUENTLY A DISASTROUS INFLATION.
4) MANY PEOPLE NO LONGER WANTED TO HOLD CIVIC OFFICES, AS THESE PAID NOTHING. THE GOVERNMENT WAS FORCED TO COMPEL PEOPLE TO TAKE OFFICE.
- DIOCLETIAN ENDED THE POLITICAL CRISIS OF THE 3RD CENTURY WHEN HE BECAME EMPEROR IN 284 A.D.
- REORGANIZED THE EMPIRE INTO SMALLER UNITS AND ENLISTED THREE OTHER MEN TO SHARE HIS RULE, i.e., THE TETRARCHY (RULE OF FOUR).
- DIOCLETIAN AND ANOTHER TOOK THE TITLE "AUGUSTUS."
- THE OTHER TWO TOOK THE TITLE "CAESAR" (YOUNGER MEN).
- THE EMPIRE HOWEVER, WAS NOT DIVIDED INTO FOUR PARTS.
- HE REFORMED THE TAX SYSTEM SO THAT TAXES WERE NOW ALSO ASSESSED ON TRADES AND PROFESSIONS RATHER THAN JUST LAND OWNERS.
- PERSECUTED CHRISTIANS SEVERELY.
- GRAVITATED THE RULE OF THE EMPIRE TO THE EAST.
- DIOCLETIAN RESIDED IN EASTERN CITIES AND VISITED ROME ONLY ONCE!
- HE RETIRED IN 305 A.D.
- THE TETRARCHY ARRANGEMENT FELL APART, FOLLOWED BY YEARS OF CIVIL WAR UNTIL CONSTANTINE BECAME SOLE EMPEROR.
- CONSTANTINE (324-337 A.D.)
- UNDER HIM THERE WERE ABOUT 120 PROVINCES BUT NOW NO GOVERNOR OF A PROVINCE COULD COMMAND TROOPS.
- HE CONTINUED TO EXPAND BUREAUCRACY THAT DIOCLETIAN ESTABLISHED.
- LOCAL CITY COUNCILS RULED BY "CURIALES" SERVED UNDER COMPULSION. THESE COUNCILS WERE THE FOUNDATION OF THE WHOLE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE.
- MEMBERS OF ALL TRADES AND PROFESSIONS WERE GROUPED INTO CORPORATIONS AND THE STATE MADE PROFESSIONS HEREDITARY.
- 330 A.D. - CONSTANTINE RENAMED THE GREEK CITY OF BYZANTIUM "CONSTANTINOPLE" AND ESTABLISHED IT AS HIS CAPITAL. THIS EASTERN EMPIRE WOULD LAST UNTIL 1453 A.D., WHEN IT FELL TO THE OTTOMAN TURKS.
- PLAYED ACTIVE PART AS PATRON OF THE CHURCH.
V. DECLINE OF WESTERN EMPIRE
395 A.D. - ROMAN EMPIRE DIVIDED INTO EASTERN HALF AND WESTERN HALF WITH DIVIDING LINE JUST EAST OF ITALY.
- SOCIETY OF WESTERN EMPIRE BECAME MORE RIGID.
- COLONI WERE BOUND TO THE SOIL (COULD NO LONGER BE REPLACED BY SLAVES FROM FOREIGN CONQUEST).
- CENTRAL GOVERNMENT WEAKENED.
- ESTATES CALLED VILLAS STRENGTHENED AND MANY RESEMBLED MANORS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
- THEY BECAME THE MAIN ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL UNITS OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.
- STRENGTH OF EMPIRE NO LONGER CENTERED IN ROME AS VILLAS GREW STRONGER.
- TRADE WITHIN THE WESTERN EMPIRE CONTINUED TO DECLINE.
476 A.D. - FORMAL END OF WESTERN EMPIRE WHEN GERMANIC WARLORD, ODOACER, DEPOSED LAST WESTERN EMPEROR, ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS.
SOME REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST:
- SHORTAGE OF MANAGEMENT
- BECAME VERY SERIOUS WHEN VILLAS BEGAN TO OPERATE AS SEPARATE UNITS AND THE POPULATION NO LONGER MANNED AN ARMY THAT WAS DIRECTED BY A CENTRAL AUTHORITY.
- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MADE THE WESTERN EMPIRE MORE VULNERABLE TO INVASION THAN THE EASTERN EMPIRE. MIGRATION OF WARLIKE TRIBES WAS MUCH EASIER ALONG THE DANUBE VALLEY AND THROUGH THE TERRAIN OF CENTRAL EUROPE RATHER THAN SOUTH THROUGH MORE DIFFICULT EASTERN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN.
- LACK OF CIVILIAN CONTROL OVER THE MILITARY RESULTING IN CONTINUAL CHANGES OF EMPERORS DURING LATE 2ND AND 3RD CENTURIES.
- LOWER CLASSES BECAME MORE APATHETIC AND RESENTFUL.
- TAXATION AND CONTROL OVER THE ECONOMY BECAME MORE OPPRESSIVE - LITTLE INCENTIVE BY MOST PEOPLE TO COMPLY WITH THESE HARSH CONTROLS.
- LARGE GROUPS OF THE POPULATION OF ROME CONTINUED TO BE FED AND ENTERTAINED ON THE PUBLIC DOLE.
- NON-ITALIANS CONTINUED TO PLAY A LARGER ROLE IN THE ARMY.
- THEY DID NOT HAVE THE AFFINITY FOR ROME THAT MARKED THE ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC.