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Western Civilization I page. |
1415-1560
I. OVERSEAS EXPANSION
THE PORTUGUESE - THE PIONEERS IN EUROPEAN EXPANSION OVERSEAS.
- EARLY 1400's PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR (SON OF THE KING) BEGAN TASK OF ORGANIZING OVERSEAS EXPLORATION.
- 1419 - HE BEGAN SUPPORTING SAILORS, MAPMAKERS, ASTRONOMERS, SHIPBUILDERS AND INSTRUMENT MAKERS FOR FINDING A WAY AROUND AFRICA TO REACH THE WEALTH OF THE ORIENT.
- TRADITIONAL LAND ROUTES TO THE ORIENT WERE BECOMING PROBLEMATIC BECAUSE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.
- 1488 - BARTHOLOMEU DIAS SAILED BEYOND THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
- 1494 - TREATY OF TORDESILLAS.
- POPE DIVIDED THE WORLD BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. THE PORTUGUESE RECEIVED ALL LANDS TO THE EAST OF AN IMAGINARY LINE ABOUT 300 MILES WEST OF THE AZORES.
- PORTUGAL THUS KEPT THE ONLY PRACTICAL ROUTE TO INDIA.
- 1497 - VASCO DE GAMA SAILED ACROSS THE INDIAN OCEAN.
- KEY TO PORTUGUESE SUCCESS WAS NAVAL POWER WHICH THEY USED TO REDUCE ARAB NAVAL STRENGTH.
- EMPIRE CREATED BY PORTUGAL DEPENDED ON NAVAL POWER -NOT ON OVERSEAS SETTLEMENTS.
- PORTUGUESE SET UP A CHAIN OF TRADING BASES CONSISTING OF FORTS AND WAREHOUSES ALONG THE COASTS.
- PORTUGUESE RESTRICTED CONTACTS WITH AFRICANS AND ASIANS TO MISSIONARY AND TRADING ACTIVITIES WITH NO ATTEMPT MADE TO SUBJUGATE PEOPLE.
- OVERSEAS EXPANSION BECAME PROFITABLE FOR PORTUGAL AS IMPORTERS OF LUXURIES FROM THE EAST, e.g., SPICES.
- BECAME SUPPLIERS OF SLAVES FROM AFRICA WHICH WAS ALSO PROFITABLE.
THE SPANIARDS
- THEY BECAME THE SECOND WAVE OF OVERSEAS EXPANSION.
- SPANIARDS FOUNDED THEIR EMPIRE ON CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION - NOT TRADE.
- 1492 - ISABELLA AND FERDINAND SUPPORTED THE GENOESE SAILOR, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, ON HIS JOURNEY TO DISCOVER A WESTWARD ROUTE TO ASIA.
- AFTER 33 DAYS, HE REACHED THE BAHAMAS AND THEN WENT ON TO EXPLORE MORE OF THE WEST INDIES.
- 1513 - VASCO DE BALBOA SAW THE PACIFIC OCEAN FROM HIS EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.
- REKINDLED NOTION OF AN EASY WESTWARD PASSAGE TO EAST ASIA.
- 1522 - ALL HOPES OF AN EASY WESTWARD PASSAGE TO THE ORIENT WERE DESTROYED WHEN THE ONE SURVIVING SHIP FROM FERDINAND MAGELLAN'S FLEET RETURNED TO SPAIN AFTER CIRCUMNAVIGATING THE WORLD.
- 1529 - SPAIN RENOUNCED ALL CLAIMS TO TRADE WITH THE EAST AND BEGAN CONCENTRATING ON THE AMERICAS.
- 1519 - HERNANDO CORTES, THE FIRST OF THE SPANISH CONQUISTADORS, LANDED IN MEXICO WITH 600 TROOPS.
- BY 1521, HE DEFEATED THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION THAT OCCUPIED THE HIGH PLATEAU OF CENTRAL MEXICO.
- FRANCISCO PIZZARO, ANOTHER CONQUISTADOR, DEFEATED THE INCA CIVILIZATION OF PERU.
- OTHER CONQUISTADORS WERE ALSO SUCCESSFUL IN DEFEATING NATIVE PEOPLES THROUGHOUT CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA.
- POLITICAL ADMINISTRATION OF OVERSEAS COLONIES WAS THROUGH REPRESENTATIVES OF THE THRONE CALLED VICEROYS.
- EACH VICEROY WAS ADVISED BY A LOCAL COUNCIL CALLED AN AUDIENCIA.
ECONOMIC GROWTH
- MOST OF THE SILVER FROM THE NEW WORLD WENT BEYOND SPAIN TO ITALIAN AND GERMAN MERCHANTS WHO FINANCED THE WARS OF THE SPANISH KINGS.
- DRAMATIC GROWTH IN POPULATION IN THE 16TH CENTURY WAS PRIME CONTRIBUTOR TO INFLATION AS IT INCREASED DEMAND FOR GOODS.
- DRAMATIC INCREASE PARTICULARLY IN FOOD PRICES.
- CITIES GREW MUCH FASTER THAN THE POPULATION AS A WHOLE.
- GREAT BANKERS OFTEN FINANCED THE WARS OF KINGS, e.g, THE FUGGERS OF GERMANY HEAVILY FINANCED THE WARS OF EMPEROR CHARLES V OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.
- THEY GAINED FROM THE MOUNTING POWER OF THE MONARCHS.
- UNTIL THE LATE 16TH CENTURY ITALIAN AND GERMAN BANKERS CONTROLLED EUROPE'S FINANCES.
SOCIAL CHANGE
- WAGES LAGGED MISERABLY BEHIND RENTS AND FOOD PRICES IN THE EARLY 17TH CENTURY.
- A LABORER'S ANNUAL INCOME HAD LOST HALF THE PURCHASING POWER IT HAD HAD AT THE END OF THE 15TH CENTURY.
- LARGE NUMBERS OF PEASANTS HAD TO LEAVE THE LAND.
- MANY TURNED TO BEGGING AND WANDERING AS VAGRANTS.
- OPENING OF ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES BECAME AVAILABLE TO THOSE WHO WERE ABLE TO SERVE THE GROWING MONARCHS.
II. NEW MONARCHIES
LAST QUARTER OF 15TH CENTURY SAW STRONG RULERS KNOWN AS "NEW MONARCHS" IN ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND SPAIN.
- AFTER MORE THAN A CENTURY OF FRAGMENTATION, THE BEGINNING OF A REVIVAL OF ROYAL POWERS OCCURRED UNDER THESE MONARCHS.
TUDOR ENGLAND
- HENRY VII (1485 - 1509) - THE FIRST OF THE TUDOR DYNASTY CAME TO THE THRONE AS THE CLEAR VICTOR IN THE WAR OF THE ROSES (1485) BETWEEN THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER, WHICH WAS SUCCESSFUL, AND THE HOUSE OF YORK.
- HE EXTENDED AUTHORITY OF THE CROWN.
- HE GREATLY STRENGTHENED FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF THE CROWN.
- INCREASED FINES TO HIS UNRULY SUBJECTS WHILE STRENGTHENING THE JUSTICES OF THE PEACE.
- THIS STRENGTHENING OF THE JUSTICES OF THE PEACE WAS VERY MUCH AIMED AT WEAKENING THE POWER OF THE NOBLES.
- HE USED THE GENTRY, NOT THE NOBLES, TO ADMINISTER ENGLAND.
- THE GENTRY HAD LARGE ESTATES AND WERE OFTEN DOMINANT FIGURES BUT TECHNICALLY NOT NOBLES.
- HE ENCOURAGED EXPORT OF CLOTH WHICH WAS THE GREAT STAPLE PRODUCT OF ENGLAND.
- HE PROTECTED ENGLISH SHIPPING.
- HIS REIGN WAS ONE OF STABILITY AND FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY.
- HENRY VIII (1509 - 1547) - SON OF HENRY VII
- HAD USED CARDINAL WOLSEY AS HIS CHIEF MINISTER WHO EXPANDED ACTIVITIES OF THE ROYAL COURTS SUCH AS THE STAR CHAMBER WHERE THERE WERE NO JURIES AND DECISIONS WERE MADE QUICKLY.
- WOLSEY LOST POWER IN 1529 WHEN HE WAS UNABLE TO OBTAIN A DIVORCE FROM THE POPE FOR HENRY VIII. HENRY HAD MARRIED HIS BROTHER'S WIDOW, CATHERINE OF ARAGON, WHO WAS ALSO THE AUNT OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR AND THE KING OF SPAIN, i.e., CHARLES V. HENRY HAD WANTED A DIVORCE BECAUSE CATHERINE DID NOT BEAR HIM A MALE HEIR.
- UNDER THE ADVICE OF HIS NEW ADVISER, THOMAS CROMWELL, HENRY DIVORCED CATHERINE, BROKE WITH THE CHURCH, AND MADE HIMSELF THE RULER OF THE NEWLY CREATED ANGLICAN CHURCH.
- HENRY USED PARLIAMENT EXTENSIVELY TO HELP HIM OBTAIN HIS GOALS. THE POWER OF PARLIAMENT WAS THUS ENHANCED.
- HIS ADMINISTRATION WAS GREATLY ENRICHED AS HE CONFISCATED AND SOLD CHURCH HOLDINGS.
- EDWARD VI (1547 - 1553) - SON OF HENRY VIII
- DIED OF TUBERCULOSIS WHILE STILL A MINOR.
- SOME ATTEMPTS BY THE NOBILITY WERE MADE TO REGAIN LOST POWER.
- MARY I (1553 - 1558) DAUGHTER OF HENRY VIII - DEVOUT CATHOLIC WHO TRIED UNSUCCESSFULLY TO REESTABLISH CATHOLICISM.
VALOIS FRANCE
- UNLIKE ENGLAND, FRANCE LACKED A WELL-FORMED ORGANIZATION FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT.
- ARISTOCRATS DOMINATED MANY SECTIONS WITH VIRTUAL INDEPENDENCE.
- DISTANT AREAS WERE PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT FOR THE CROWN TO CONTROL.
- THE ROYAL COUNCIL WAS THE ADMINISTRATIVE CENTER OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT IN PARIS.
- THE PARLEMENT OF PARIS REMAINED A JUDICIAL BODY UNLIKE THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT.
- VARIOUS PROVINCES HAD THEIR OWN PARLEMENTS WHICH WEAKENED THE PARLEMENT OF PARIS.
- ESTATES GENERAL - THE NATIONAL REPRESENTATIVE BODY WAS COMPOSED OF 3 ESTATES:
1) CLERGY
2) NOBLES
3) EVERYONE ELSE
- THE ESTATES GENERAL NEVER FUNCTIONED LIKE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT AS AN ESSENTIAL ORGAN OF GOVERNMENT.
- KINGS MOSTLY IGNORED IT BY RARELY CALLING IT INTO SESSION.
- IT HAD VIRTUALLY NO REAL POWER.
- KINGS OF FRANCE HAD MORE AUTONOMY THAN MONARCHS OF ENGLAND IN THAT FINANCIALLY THEY WERE SUPPORTED BY VARIOUS TAXES, i.e., SALT TAX (GABELLE), HEARTH TAX (TAILLE), SALES TAX (AIDE) WHICH MEANT THEY DID NOT HAVE TO RELY ON THE ESTATES GENERAL FOR REVENUE.
- A DECISIVE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE WAS THAT FRANCE HAD A STANDING ARMY WHILE ENGLAND HAD NONE.
- FRENCH ARMY WAS CHIEFLY PROFESSIONAL MERCENARIES AND NOBLES WHO NUMBERED OVER 15,000 IN THE LATE 15TH CENTURY.
- UPKEEP OF TROOPS OFTEN ACCOUNTED FOR MORE THAN 1/2 THE ROYAL EXPENDITURES.
- STANDING ARMY WAS STILL AN ASSET TO ROYAL AUTHORITY AS THEY WERE FIRMLY UNDER ROYAL CONTROL.
- LOUIS XI (1461 - 1483)
- SUCCESSFULLY INCORPORATED THE BURGURDIAN AREAS OF EASTERN FRANCE INTO THE ROYAL REALM.
- INHERITED LARGE AREAS INCLUDING THE PROVINCES OF MAINE, ANJOU AND PROVENCE THUS AGAIN GREATLY EXPANDING ROYAL CONTROL OVER MORE AREAS OF FRANCE.
- CHARLES VIII (1483 - 1498) - SON OF LOUIS XI.
- CONTINUED TO EXPAND ROYAL HOLDINGS IN FRANCE.
- SEEKING FURTHER GAINS, CHARLES INVADED ITALY WHERE FRANCE ENTERED INTO A PROLONGED STRUGGLE WITH THE HAPSBURGS. THE CONFLICT LASTED FOR 65 YEARS AND ENDED IN DEFEAT FOR FRANCE.
- LOUIS XII (1498 - 1515) - SON OF CHARLES VIII.
- BECAUSE NOBLES, ROYAL OFFICE HOLDERS, AND THE CLERGY WERE EXEMPT FROM TAILLE AND THE GABELLE, THE BULK OF THE TAXES FELL ON THE 3RD ESTATE - THE ESTATE THAT HAD THE LEAST TO GIVE. THUS OTHER MEANS OF RAISING ROYAL INCOME WERE NEEDED.
- LOUIS BEGAN THE PRACTICE OF SELLING OFFICES, i.e., POSITIONS IN THE ADMINISTRATION, THE PARLEMENTS, AND EVERY BRANCH OF THE BUREAUCRACY TO PURCHASERS EAGER TO OBTAIN TAX EXEMPTION AS WELL AS A HIGHER STATUS.
- THIS PRACTICE CAUSED A DRAMATIC EXPANSION OF BUREAUCRACIES AND ENCOURAGED CORRUPTION.
- FRANCIS I (1515 - 1547) - SON OF LOUIS XII
- ONE OF HIS MOST REMARKABLE ACHIEVEMENTS WAS THE POWER HE GAINED OVER THE CHURCH.
- IN 1516, HE PERSUADED THE POPE TO GIVE FRENCH KINGS THE RIGHT TO APPOINT ALL ITS BISHOPS AND ABBOTS.
- HE THUS OBTAINED THE AUTHORITY OVER THE CLERGY THAT HENRY VIII WAS TO ACHIEVE BUT WITHOUT BREAKING FROM THE CHURCH.
- FORMED AN INNER COUNCIL TO REPLACE THE ROYAL COUNCIL AS THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE BODY.
- TAX-GATHERING AND ACCOUNTING WERE CENTRALIZED UNDER ONE AGENCY.
- THE MONARCHY WAS THUS GREATLY STRENGTHENED UNDER FRANCIS.
- HENRY II (1547 - 1559) - SON OF FRANCIS I
- BY THE END OF HIS REIGN, THE ITALIAN WARS AGAINST THE HAGSBURGS ENDED IN FRENCH DEFEAT WHICH BADLY DAMAGED THE PRESTIGE OF THE MONARCHY.
- CIVIL WARS FOLLOWED HENRY'S REIGN.
UNITED SPAIN
- IN THE MID 15TH CENTURY, SPAIN WAS DIVIDED INTO 2 MAJOR KINGDOMS:
1) CASTILE - CENTRAL AND WEST
2) ARAGON - EAST
- 1469 - ISABELLA OF CASTILE MARRIED FERDINAND OF ARAGON
- MANY CASTILIAN NOBLES OPPOSED THE UNION AND A 10-YEAR CIVIL WAR ENSUED.
- THE UNITED MONARCHY EMERGED VICTORIOUS WITH THE NEW POLITICAL ENTITY - THE KINGDOM OF SPAIN.
- ISABELLA AND FERDINAND USED THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, THE CORTES, TO SUPPORT THEIR GOAL OF SUPERIORITY OVER THE NOBLES OF CASTILE.
- THE CORTES WAS DOMINATED BY URBAN REPRESENTATIVES WHO SHARED THE MONARCHS DESIRE TO WEAKEN THE NOBLES.
- THE CORTES DID NOT SERIOUSLY RESTRICT THE CROWN BECAUSE, AS IN FRANCE, TAXES COULD BE RAISED WITHOUT CONSENT.
- ISABELLA AND FERDINAND GREATLY ADDED TO THEIR REVENUE THROUGH FINANCIAL REFORM. THE SALES TAX, THE ALCABALA, WAS THE MAINSTAY OF ROYAL INCOME.
- THE HIDALGO, A LESSER NOBLE, WHO WAS HEAVILY DEPENDENT ON ROYAL FAVOR, BECAME INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT IN THE ADMINISTRATION.
- THE MONARCHS GAINED CONTROL OF THE MILITARY ORDERS FROM THE NOBLES BY THE 1490'S.
- THE MONARCHS GAINED THE RIGHT FROM THE POPE TO MAKE ALL MAJOR ECCLESIASTICAL APPOINTMENTS.
- 1492 - THE LAST ARAB STRONGHOLD, GRANADA IN SOUTHERN SPAIN, FELL.
- LATER THAT YEAR, ALL JEWS WERE EXPELLED FROM SPAIN.
- THE MONARCHS USED THEIR OWN INQUISITION TO CONVERT ARABS AND JEWS INTO A COUNTRY UNITED UNDER CATHOLICISM.
- 1502 - ALL ARABS WHO WERE NOT CHRISTIANS WERE ALSO EXPELLED.
- FERDINAND FOCUSED ON FOREIGN POLICY PARTICULARLY AFTER ISABELLA'S DEATH IN 1504.
- HE REORGANIZED SPAIN'S STANDING ARMY TO BECOME THE MOST EFFECTIVE IN EUROPE.
- SPAIN BECAME A MAJOR POWER IN ITALY.
- HE BUILT THE STRONGEST DIPLOMATIC SERVICE IN EUROPE.
- HE GAINED TERRITORY FOR SPAIN AND EXPANDED ITS STATUS.
- CHARLES V (1516-1556) - THE GRANDSON OF ISABELLA AND FERDINAND BECAME THE KING OF SPAIN AS WELL AS THE EMPEROR OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE HAPSBURG FAMILY.
- INTERNAL REVOLTS OCCURRED IN SPAIN AS MANY CONSIDERED CHARLES AN OUTSIDER (HE SPOKE NO SPANISH WHEN HE ARRIVED IN SPAIN) AND SPENT MORE THAN 2/3 OF HIS 40-YEAR REIGN OUTSIDE OF SPAIN.
- HE RULED ALMOST ALL OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE WEST OF POLAND AND THE BALKANS (EXCEPT FRANCE) AS WELL AS LARGE TERRITORIES IN THE NEW WORLD.
- FRANCISCO DE LOS COBOS WAS HIS CHIEF ADMINISTRATOR IN SPAIN.
- ESTABLISHED COMPLETE SUPREMACY OF THE CROWN.
- CREATED A HIGHLY ORGANIZED ADMINISTRATION CONSISTING OF VICEROYS IN EVERY MAJOR AREA AS WELL AS THE TERRITORIAL COUNCIL - THE AUDIENCIA. THIS ENORMOUS BUREAUCRACY WAS SUPPLIED PRIMARILY BY HIDALGOS. IT WAS ONE OF THE MOST DETAILED STRUCTURES EVER DEVISED FOR RULING AN EMPIRE.
- SPANIARDS ALSO RESENTED THE CONTINUAL FUNDS THAT WENT TO SUPPORT THE WARS OF CHARLES V. DESPITE THE INFLUX TO THE ROYAL TREASURE FROM LATIN AMERICA (PRIMARILY SILVER), THE MONARCHY HAD TO DECLARE BANKRUPTCY ONE YEAR AFTER CHARLES' DEATH.
- CEASELESS WARS WERE WEAKENING SPAIN DESPITE THE REVENUE FROM LATIN AMERICA.
III. SPLINTERED STATES
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
- A STRONG CENTRAL GOVERNMENT DID NOT EMERGE.
- THE PRINCES CONTROLLED THEIR OWN TERRITORIES AND PREVENTED THE EMPEROR FROM GAINING POWER.
- INDEPENDENT CITIES ALSO REFUSED TO BE SUBORDINATE TO A CENTRAL POWER.
- THE DIET WAS THE ONLY CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION BESIDES THE EMPEROR.
- CONSISTED OF 3 ASSEMBLIES.
- ITS POWER, LIKE THAT OF THE EMPERORS, REMAINED VERY RESTRICTED.
- THE HAPSBURGS TRIED TO DEVELOP STRONG CENTRAL AUTHORITY BUT EXERCISED CONTROL ONLY OVER THEIR OWN DOMINIONS, e.g., AUSTRIA AND THE LOW COUNTRIES.
ITALY
- ITALY WAS DOMINATED IN THE 15TH CENTURY BY 5 MAJOR STATES:
1) VENICE
2) MILAN
3) FLORENCE
4) PAPAL STATES
5) NAPLES
- FROM 1454 - 1494 THESE STATES ENTERED A PERIOD OF RELATIVE PEACE.
- 1494 - PEACE WAS SHATTERED AS MILAN RECEIVED FRENCH HELP TO PROTECT IT AGAINST FLORENCE AND NAPLES.
- FIGHTING AMONG FRENCH, HAPSBURGS (SPANIARDS AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE) AND CITY STATES LASTED UNTIL 1559 WHEN THE HAPSBURGS GAINED CONTROL BY DEFEATING THE FRENCH.
- ONLY VENICE AND THE PAPAL STATES WERE NOW INDEPENDENT.
- NO SMALL POLITICAL UNIT COULD SURVIVE IN AN AGE WHEN GOVERNMENTS WERE CONSOLIDATING THEIR AUTHORITY INTO LARGE KINGDOMS.
- WRITING ON THESE WARS IN THE ITALIAN PENINSULA WAS NICOLO MACHIAVELLI WHO PRODUCED TWO CLASSIC WORKS: THE PRINCE AND THE DISCOURSE.
- THE PRINCE SHOWED HOW POWER EXISTED AND OUTLINED THE METHODS OF OBTAINING POWER AND HOLDING IT. FEAR AND RESPECT ARE THE BASES FOR AUTHORITY AND RULERS MUST NEVER RELAX THEIR CONTROL.
- THE DISCOURSES WAS A CYCLICAL THEORY OF EVERY GOVERNMENT MOVING FROM TYRANNY TO DEMOCRACY BACK TO TYRANNY.
- ONLY A GOVERNMENT THAT HAS ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OF ALL ITS CITIZENS REMAINS HEALTHY.