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Western Civilization I page. |
I. THE CRUSADES
ORIGINS
- FAVORITE FORM OF RELIGIOUS EXERCISE WAS THE PILGRIMAGE WHICH WAS A PERSONAL VISIT TO A HOLY PLACE.
- PILGRIMAGES INCREASED AND BECAME AN AGE OF MASS PILGRIMAGES FROM ABOUT 1050 - 1250 WHEN EUROPEAN POPULATION WAS GROWING MOST RAPIDLY.
- PILGRIMAGE TRAFFIC TO THE HOLY LANDS (PALESTINE) WAS JEOPARDIZED BY SELJUK TURKS, MUSLIM NOMADS WHO IN THE 11TH CENTURY OVERRAN MOST OF THE MIDDLE EAST.
- THE SELJUK TURKS IMPOSED NUMEROUS TOLLS AND TAXES UPON CHRISTIANS BOUND FOR PALESTINE RATHER THAN SIMPLY PREVENTING THEM PASSAGE.
- MANY CHRISTIANS BECAME ANGERED AT THE DOMINATION OF PALESTINE BY THESE TURKS.
- CHRISTIAN EMPIRE OF BYZANTIUM WAS IN GREAT JEOPARDY OF BEING OVERRUN BY SELJUK TURKS PARTICULARLY AFTER THE CRUSHING DEFEAT OF BYZANTINE FORCES AT THE BATTLE OF MANZIKERT IN 1071.
- THE FALL OF BYZANTIUM WOULD BE A MAJOR DISASTER TO THE CHRISTIAN WORLD.
- 1095 - THE BYZANTINE EMPEROR, ALEXUS, ASKED POPE URBAN II FOR HELP IN DEFENDING THEMSELVES FROM THE SELJUK TURKS.
- MANY IN THE WEST VIEWED THAT GOD WOULD REWARD THOSE WHO FOUGHT FOR A JUST CAUSE SUCH AS: HELPING FELLOW CHRISTIANS OF THE EAST; FREE THE HOLY LANDS; CRUSH THE INFIDEL (MUSLIMS).
- YOUNGER SONS OF EUROPEAN KNIGHTS WERE PARTICULARLY AWARE OF PRESSURES CREATED BY EXPANDING POPULATION.
- SAW GREAT HOPE IN ADVANCING THEIR WEALTH, HONOR, AND ESTEEM BY JOINING A HOLY WAR.
FIRST CRUSADE (1096 - 1099)
- CALLED BY POPE URBAN II IN 1095 - HE OFFERED EXEMPTION FROM PURGATORY TO THOSE WHO FOUGHT IN THIS CRUSADE (AN INDULGENCE).
- CONSISTED OF 4 ARMIES THAT MOVED BY OVERLAND AND SEA ROUTES TO CONSTANTINOPLE WHERE THEY RECEIVED PROVISIONS FOR THEIR MARCH TO JERUSALEM. THERE WERE BETWEEN 5000-10,000 HEAVILY ARMORED MOUNTED KNIGHTS AND OVER 30,000 INFANTRY MEN.
LEADERS OF THESE ARMIES INCLUDED:
- ROBERT OF NORMANDY (SON OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR)
- GODFREY AND BALDWIN OF BOUILLON
- ROBERT OF FLANDERS
- RAYMOND OF TOULOUSE
- BOHEMOND AND TANCRED OF THE NORMANS OF SOUTHERN ITALY
- 1099 - BATTLE OF ANTIOCH (PORT CITY ON MEDITERRANEAN) WAS DECISIVE BATTLE WHICH WAS MAJOR VICTORY FOR THE CRUSADERS.
- IN JULY, 1099 CRUSADERS ENTERED JERUSALEM WHERE THEY SLAUGHTERED THE INFIDEL POPULATION.
- MUSLIMS HAD SHOWN AN INABILITY TO PRESENT A UNITED FRONT IN THIS FIRST CRUSADE.
RESULTS OF FIRST CRUSADE
- MOST SUCCESSFUL OF ALL CRUSADES AS JERUSALEM WAS CAPTURED AND HELD FOR NEARLY A CENTURY.
- NEW MILITARY/RELIGIOUS ORDERS WERE FOUNDED SHORTLY AFTER THE FIRST CRUSADE THAT OFFERED ARMED ESCORTS AND SAFE LODGINGS TO PILGRIMS TO PALESTINE.
1) KNIGHTS OF THE TEMPLE (TEMPLARS) - FOUNDED BEFORE 1120 BY FRENCH KNIGHTS.
- LIKE MONKS THEY TOOK THE VOWS OF POVERTY, CHASTITY AND OBEDIENCE AND LIVED TOGETHER IN THEIR OWN COMMUNITIES.
- THEY ASSUMED PRINCIPAL ROLE IN PROTECTING PILGRIMS AS WELL AS DEFENSE OF NEW KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.
2) KNIGHTS OF THE HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM (HOSPITALERS).
- FOUNDED ABOUT 1130.
- ALSO MADE A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEFENSE OF THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM ALTHOUGH NOT AS NUMEROUS OR WEALTHY AS THE TEMPLARS.
- MOVED THEIR HEADQUARTERS TO VARIOUS PLACES AND LATER BECAME KNOWN AS KNIGHTS OF MALTA.
KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM
- GODFREY OF BOUILLON CHOSEN AS FIRST RULER OF THIS NEW KINGDOM AND WAS SUCCEEDED BY HIS BROTHER BALDWIN.
- KINGDOM INCLUDED DIRECT CONTROL OF JERUSALEM AND SURROUNDING AREA (COAST FROM GAZA TO BEIRUT).
TO THE NORTH OF THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM, 3 FIEFS WERE ESTABLISHED:
1) COUNTY OF TRIPOLI
2) PRINCIPALITY OF ANTIOCH
3) COUNTY OF EDESSA
- PROFOUND WEAKNESSES OF THIS NEW KINGDOM INCLUDED:
- FRONTIERS WERE NEVER PUSHED TO GOOD DEFENSIBLE POSITIONS.
- KINGDOM REMAINED HEAVILY DEPENDENT UPON CONSTANT INFLUX OF MEN AND MONEY FROM THE WEST.
- WHILE MANY PILGRIMS CAME, FEW STAYED AS PERMANENT SETTLERS.
- KINGDOM WAS SURROUNDED BY INFIDELS.
- THOSE WITHIN THE KINGDOM WERE ALSO LARGELY INFIDELS.
SECOND CRUSADE (1147 - 1149) - ATTEMPTED TO CAPTURE DAMASCUS (SYRIA) SO AS TO BETTER PROTECT THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM BUT ENDED IN FAILURE.
THIRD CRUSADE (1189 - 1192)
- JERUSALEM HAD BEEN CAPTURED IN 1187 BY THE SELJUK TURK RULER SALADIN WHICH LED POPE INNOCENT III TO CALL FOR THIS CRUSADE.
- FAMOUS HEADS OF STATES PARTICIPATED IN THIS CRUSADE:
PHILIP AUGUSTUS - FRANCE
RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED - ENGLAND
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA - GERMANY
- FREDERICK DROWNED WHILE CROSSING A STREAM IN ASIA MINOR (TURKEY) CAUSING MOST OF HIS FOLLOWERS TO DESERT.
- WHILE ACRE (SEAPORT IN PALESTINE) WAS CAPTURED, JERUSALEM REMAINED UNDER MUSLIM CONTROL.
- UNARMED CHRISTIANS WERE GIVEN THE RIGHT TO VISIT JERUSALEM.
FOURTH CRUSADE (1202 - 1204)
- CALLED BY POPE INNOCENT III TO GET JERUSALEM BACK FROM MUSLIM CONTROL.
- ARMY ASSEMBLED IN VENICE WHERE THE GOVERNMENT HEAD (THE DOGE) DEMANDED MONEY FOR PASSAGE. THE CRUSADERS FIRST ATTACKED A RIVAL CITY OF VENICE IN DALMATIA AS PAYMENT.
- CRUSADERS NEXT SUPPORTED A REFUGEE PRINCE NAMED ALEXUS WHO CLAIMED HIS FATHER WAS THE RIGHTFUL HEIR TO THE BYZANTINE THRONE. THEY SACKED CONSTANTINOPLE IN RETURN FOR BOOTY. IN 1204, THEY ESTABLISHED THE LATIN KINGDOM OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
- THE BYZANTINE EMPEROR RECAPTURED THE CITY IN 1262. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, WHILE REGAINED, HAD BEEN SERIOUSLY WEAKENED BY THIS CRUSADE.
- THIS CRUSADE NEVER REACHED THE HOLY LANDS AND IS CONSIDERED THE MOST INFAMOUS AS CHRISTIANS ATTACKED CHRISTIANS.
THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE OF 1212 IS CONSIDERED THE MOST TRAGIC.
- THOUSANDS OF BOYS AND GIRLS AGED 10-18 MARCHED TO JERUSALEM IN THE BELIEF THAT GOD WOULD PROTECT THEM BECAUSE THEY WERE POOR AND FAITHFUL.
- CHILDREN WERE MOSTLY FROM FRANCE AND GERMANY.
- NONE OF THE CHILDREN EVER REACHED THE HOLY LAND AND MANY STARVED OR FROZE TO DEATH, OTHERS WERE CAPTURED, AND THE REST RETURNED HOME.
FIFTH CRUSADE (1217 - 1221)
- CRUSADERS FOUGHT IN EGYPT BUT NEVER REACHED THE HOLY LAND.
- THIS CRUSADE ENDED IN FAILURE.
SIXTH CRUSADE (1228 - 1229)
- EMPEROR FREDERICK II NEGOTIATED A SETTLEMENT WITH THE MUSLIMS AFTER BEING UNABLE TO DEFEAT THEM.
- HE WAS ABLE TO OBTAIN CONTROL OF JERUSALEM AND NAZARETH. JERUSALEM REMAINED CHRISTIAN UNTIL 1244 WHEN THE MUSLIMS SEIZED IT AGAIN.
SEVENTH CRUSADE (1248 - 1254) AND EIGHTH CRUSADE (1270)
- LED BY LOUIS IX OF FRANCE FIRST AGAINST EGYPT (SEVENTH CRUSADE) AND THEN AGAINST TUNIS (EIGHTH CRUSADE).
- BOTH CRUSADES ENDED IN FAILURE.
- HE WAS CAPTURED ON THE SEVENTH CRUSADE AND HAD TO PAY A HUGE RANSOM TO BE RELEASED.
- HE DIED IN A PLAGUE ALONG WITH MANY OF THE CRUSADERS ON THE EIGHTH CRUSADE.
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES:
- CRUSADERS UNABLE TO MAINTAIN PERMANENT CONTROL OF THE HOLY LANDS.
- CRUSADERS ENHANCED SECURITY OF THE WEST BY SLOWING TURKISH ADVANCE WESTWARD.
- CRUSADES ESTABLISHED AN INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF TAXES BY GOVERNMENTS.
- TAXES NEEDED TO BE ASSESSED, COLLECTED AND THEN TRANSFERRED TO THE CRUSADERS.
- POPES COLLECTED REVENUE FROM THE SELLING OF INDULGENCES.
- YEARS LATER (1517) MARTIN LUTHER WOULD SPLIT WITH THE CHURCH OVER THIS PRACTICE.
- RELATIONS BETWEEN WESTERN AND EASTERN CHRISTIANS BECAME MORE BITTER PARTICULARLY AFTER THE FOURTH CRUSADE.
- NORTHERN ITALIAN CITIES LIKE VENICE, GENOA AND PISA GREW MORE POWERFUL BY TRANSPORTING CRUSADERS AND SUPPLYING THEM FOR THEIR TRIPS TO THE HOLY LAND.
- THE WEST LEARNED HOW TO BUILD BETTER SHIPS AND NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS.
- CRUSADES GAVE BROADER EXPOSURE TO THE VARIOUS PRODUCTS OF THE EAST.
- WESTERN DEMAND GREW FOR EASTERN SPICES AND OTHER COMMODITIES.
- STANDARD OF LIVING WAS RAISED IN THE WEST AS PEOPLE WORKED HARDER TO GAIN MORE AMENITIES THEY HAD OBSERVED IN THE EAST.
- KNOWLEDGE OF GEOGRAPHY OF THE EAST BY PEOPLE IN THE WEST INCREASED.
- FROM THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM MISSIONARIES AND MERCHANTS PENETRATED DEEP INTO CENTRAL ASIA AND BY THE 13TH CENTURY THEY HAD REACHED CHINA.
- REPORTS FROM PEOPLE LIKE MARCO POLO GAVE THE WEST ABUNDANT NEW INFORMATION ABOUT EAST ASIA.
- NAVIGATORS BEGAN TO SEEK WAYS TO EAST ASIA.
II. FALL OF BYZANTIUM/ASCENDANCY OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE
FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE
- AFTER THE DEFEAT AT MANZEKERT IN 1071 TO THE SELJUK TURKS, THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE WAS CONFINED TO THE SMALL AREA AROUND CONSTANTINOPLE.
- UNITY OF THE SMALLER EMPIRE WAS FRAGMENTED DURING FOURTH CRUSADE (1202-1204) WHEN THE EMPIRE WAS RULED BY PEOPLE FROM THE WEST.
- 1261 - BYZANTINE EMPEROR, LIVING IN EXILE AT NICEA, RECAPTURED CONSTANTINOPLE, BUT NEITHER HE NOR HIS SUCCESSORS COULD RESTORE THE UNITY THAT HAD EXISTED BEFORE THE FOURTH CRUSADE.
- FORMER SUBJECT BALKAN PEOPLE CREATED EMPIRES, e.g., SERBS AND BULGARIANS.
- BYZANTINE EMPERORS TRIED UNSUCCESSFULLY TO GAIN MILITARY AID FROM THE WEST DESPITE FORMER EXPERIENCE OF THE 4TH CRUSADE.
- 1453 - OTTOMAN TURKS WHO HAD FOLLOWED THE MONGOL INVASIONS, ATTACKED CONSTANTINOPLE FROM SEA AND LAND.
- AFTER HEROIC RESISTANCE, THE CITY FELL WHICH FORMALLY ENDED THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
RESULTS OF THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE:
- POPE SOUGHT A NEW CRUSADE TO FREE CONSTANTINOPLE BUT IT NEVER MATERIALIZED.
- WESTERN MERCHANTS WERE GIVEN GREATER INCENTIVES TO SEARCH FOR NEW TRADE ROUTES TO EAST ASIA THAT WOULD BYPASS THE ISLAMIC WATERS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
EXPANSION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
- CONSTANTINOPLE WAS MADE THE CAPITAL OF THE OTTOMAN STATE.
- NAME CHANGED TO ISTANBUL (NOT OFFICIALLY ADOPTED UNTIL 1930).
- OTTOMAN EMPIRE CONTINUED TO EXPAND REACHING ITS GREATEST HEIGHT UNDER SULEIMAN II, THE MAGNIFICENT (1520 - 1566) WHO EXTENDED THE EMPIRE IN BOTH THE WEST AND EAST.
- IN THE WEST HE DESTROYED THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY IN 1526 AND THEN LAUNCHED A HUGE OFFENSIVE AGAINST AUSTRIA WHERE HE WAS NOT SUCCESSFUL.
- IN 1529, AFTER HIS DEFEATS IN AUSTRIA, HE EXPANDED IN THE EAST BY CONQUERING MESOPOTAMIA AND THE REST OF SOUTHERN ARABIA. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE UNDER HIM INCLUDED:
- SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE
- MIDDLE EAST INCLUDING EGYPT AND ARABIA
- THE EMPIRE THEN ENTERED A PERIOD OF STABILITY.
- SULEIMAN MADE COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL TREATIES WITH FRANCE TO COUNTERBALANCE THE RULER OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, CHARLES V.
- INDIRECTLY, SULEIMAN CONTRIBUTED TO THE SUCCESS OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION BY PREVENTING CHARLES V FROM TAKING FULL ACTIONS AGAINST MARTIN LUTHER AND THE GERMAN PROTESTANT PRINCES.
OTTOMAN INSTITUTIONS
- OTTOMANS WERE DEVOUT FOLLOWERS OF ISLAM AND ADVOCATED HOLY WARS.
- DESPITE THEIR AGGRESSIVE MILITARY BEHAVIOR, THE OTTOMANS WERE LENIENT TO THOSE THEY CONQUERED.
- SUBJECT PEOPLE CONTINUED TO LIVE BY THEIR OWN LAWS WITH THEIR OWN OFFICIALS. THEY WERE, HOWEVER, REQUIRED TO PAY TAXES AND SUPPLY MEN FOR THE OTTOMAN ARMY AND ADMINISTRATION.
- OTTOMANS REMAINED ALOOF FROM TRADE WHICH REMAINED IN THE HANDS OF THEIR SUBJECT PEOPLE - GREEKS, ARMENIANS AND JEWS.
- UNDER THE SULTAN, WHO WAS THE SUPREME RULER OF ALL, WAS THE GRAND VIZER WHO WAS THE CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICIAL AND WORKED WITH A COUNCIL OF ADVISERS CALLED THE DIVAN. THE ADMINISTRATION WAS DIVIDED INTO 3 MAJOR CATEGORIES:
1 - CIVIL
2 - ECCLESIASTICAL
3 - MILITARY
- THE DIVAN HAD SUPREME CONTROL OVER THE CIVIL AND MILITARY WHILE THE ECCLESIASTICAL WAS ADMINISTERED BY A CLASS OF JUDGES KNOWN AS THE ULEMA UNDER THE SHEIKH-UL-ISLAM WHO WAS THE SUPREME JUDGE IN ALL MATTERS OF SACRED LAW.
- THE ARMY INCORPORATED THE JANISSARIES WHO WERE A HIGHLY TRAINED PROFESSIONAL CORPS OF FIGHTERS DEDICATED TO THE SULTAN AND ISLAM AND WERE VERY MUCH RESPONSIBLE FOR OTTOMAN VICTORIES.
- THE JANISSARIES WERE TECHNICALLY SLAVES.
- IN THE 15TH CENTURY, A NEW SYSTEM OF RECRUITMENT FOR THE MILITARY AND CIVIL ADMINISTRATION WAS INTRODUCED - THE DEVSHIRME IN WHICH SPECIAL COMMISSIONERS EVERY FIVE YEARS SELECTED YOUNG BOYS FROM CHRISTIAN POPULATIONS TO BE GIVEN INSTRUCTION IN TURKISH AND CONVERTED TO ISLAM. THEY WERE THEN ASSIGNED TO THE JANISSARIES OR CHOSEN FOR PALACE ADMINISTRATION.
- THUS THE MOST POWERFUL ADMINISTRATORS WERE NEW PEOPLE WITH NO TIES TO THE TURKISH ARISTOCRACY.
- THE SULTAN REMAINED THE SUPREME HEAD AND SUCCESSION WAS DETERMINED BY FRATRICIDE - THE SON CHOSEN BY THE SULTAN HAD ALL OF HIS BROTHERS AND HALF-BROTHERS EXECUTED.
LIMITS OF OTTOMAN POWER
- THE EMPIRE REACHED ITS GREATEST HEIGHT UNDER SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT.
- IT NO LONGER EXPANDED AFTER HIM.
- TRADE WAS WEAKENED AS THE WEST SOUGHT NEW TRADE ROUTES AROUND AFRICA (THUS AVOIDING THE MIDDLE EAST) TO EAST ASIA.
- LEADERSHIP AFTER SULEIMAN DETERIORATED.
- HIGH ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY CONTINUED TO WEAKEN AFTER HIM.
III. BIRTH OF MODERN RUSSIA
MONGOLS
- FROM THE 9TH TO THE 12TH CENTURIES, THE CENTER OF RUS CIVILIZATION HAD BEEN KIEV ON THE FRINGES OF THE SOUTHERN STEPPE.
- THIS AREA, HOWEVER, WAS ESPECIALLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO NOMADIC RAIDS FORCING THE RUS TO SEEK SAFER HOMES.
- FOLLOWING EARLIER MONGOL RAIDS, FROM 1237 TO 1241, A MONGOL ARMY UNDER BATU (GRANDSON OF GENGHIS KHAN) CONDUCTED RAIDS THROUGHOUT EASTERN EUROPE AND ESTABLISHED ON THE LOWER VOLGA RIVER A DIVISION OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE THAT CAME TO BE KNOWN AS THE GOLDEN HORDE WHICH HAD CONTROL OVER VAST AREAS.
- RUSSIAN PRINCES HAD TO PAY TRIBUTE TO THE GOLDEN HORDE BUT OTHERWISE RULED AUTONOMOUSLY.
- THE INFLUENCE OF THE MONGOLS ON SLAVIC LANGUAGE AND CULTURE WAS VERY SLIGHT.
- TO SEEK OUT MORE PROTECTED AREAS FROM THE MONGOLS, THE RUS POPULATION SETTLED 3 AREAS IN THE 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES:
1 - PROVINCES OF GALICIA AND VOLYNIA - THE FOREBEARS OF THE MODERN UKRAINIANS AND BYELORUSSIANS (WHITE RUSSIANS).
2 - EMPTY LANDS RULED BY NOVGOROD WHERE THE POOR SOIL NEVER SUPPORTED A LARGE POPULATION.
3 - RUSSIAN "MESOPOTAMIA" - LANDS BETWEEN THE VOLGA AND OKA RIVERS WHERE DENSE FOREST OFFERED RELATIVE SECURITY AND PRODUCTIVE SOIL.
- THESE LAST TWO GROUPS WERE THE ANCESTORS OF THE MODERN GREAT RUSSIANS - THE LARGEST OF ALL EAST SLAVIC PEOPLE.
RISE OF MOSCOW
- MOSCOW WAS THE CENTER OF THE RUSSIAN MESOPOTAMIA.
- IT GAINED PREEMINENCE, HOWEVER, MAINLY THROUGH THE ABILITY OF ITS EARLY PRINCES.
- THESE PRINCES ABANDONED THE ROTA SYSTEM OF SUCCESSION OF THE KIEVAN PERIOD IN FAVOR OF PRIMOGENITURE.
- IVAN I (1328 - 1341)
- THROUGH PURCHASES AND SOMETIMES WAR, HE EXTENDED AREA OF MOSCOW PRINCIPALITY.
- BEFRIENDED THE KAHN OF THE GOLDEN HORDE WHO PERMITTED HIM TO COLLECT TAXES FOR THE MONGOLS IN ALL RUSSIAN LANDS.
- INCREASED THE TREASURY OF MOSCOW AS WELL.
- HE SOUGHT THE FAVOR OF THE RUSSIAN CHURCH AND EVENTUALLY MOSCOW BECAME THE CAPITAL OF THE RUSSIAN CHURCH.
- IVAN III, THE GREAT (1462 - 1505)
- HE LAID THE CONSTITUTIONAL FOUNDATIONS FOR MODERN RUSSIA - THUS HE IS THE FOUNDER OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN STATE.
- HE ACQUIRED NOVGOROD WHICH HAD BECOME AN IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL CITY.
- CONFRONTED THE MONGOLS IN 1480 AT THE OKA RIVER. WHILE NO BATTLE WAS FOUGHT, THE MONGOLS WITHDREW THUS ENDING THEIR RULE IN RUSSIA.
- HIS SUCCESSOR, BASIL III, CONTINUED TO EXPAND THE MOSCOW PRINCIPALITY UNTIL IT INCLUDED NEARLY ALL THE AREAS SETTLED BY THE GREAT RUSSIANS.
- HE ADOPTED THE TITLE TSAR WHICH IS THE SLAVIC EQUIVALENT OF THE LATIN TERM CAESAR AND THE GREEK TERM KAISER, WHICH HAD BEEN THE TITLES OF THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE EMPERORS, RESPECTIVELY.
- HE SAW HIMSELF AS THE SUCCESSOR OF THE BYZANTINE EMPERORS AND MOSCOW AS THE THIRD ROME.
- HE ADOPTED THE DOUBLE-HEADED EAGLE OF BYZANTIUM AS THE SEAL AND SYMBOL OF THE NEW RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
- HE PROMULGATED A NEW CODE OF LAWS CALLED THE SUDEBNIK.
- HE CREATED A NEW CLASS OF GENTRY WHO WERE TOTALLY DEPENDENT ON HIM FOR FAVORS. THIS NEW CLASS ACTED AS A COUNTERPOISE TO THE POWER OF THE BOYARS WHO WERE THE HEREDITARY NOBLES.