DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEK POLIS: SPARTA & ATHENS
I. SPARTA: A "MIXED CONSTITUTION" OR "OLIGARCHY"
ca. 725-710 B.C. - 1st Messenian War -- Population pressure on the land led Sparta to conquer neighboring MESSINA. Messenian land divided among Spartan warriors, providing each with an allotment for subsistence. Messenians reduced to HELOTS who worked the land so that Spartans could devote their lies to military service.
ca. 650-625 B.C. - 2nd Messenian War -- Messenian revolt crushed by Sparta. This is probable occasion for the establishment of the LYCURGAN CONSTITUTION.
by 550 B.C. - Sparta had a mixed constitution. There were 2 kings whose power was limited by law. Their function was cheifly religious & military. The aristocratic or oligarchic element was represented by a COUNCIL OF ELDERS consisting of 28 men over 60 who were elected for life. The Council had important judicial functions and was consulted before any proposal was put before the assembly. The people were represented by the ASSEMBLY of all males over 30 who were the sons of a Spartan citzen. In theory, the assembly was the final authority. In reality, its power was limited. Since debate was carried on by the magistrates, elders, and kings and the assembly only voted yes ot no, it just ratified decisions already taken or decided between postions favored by leading figures. The leaders could dismisss the assembly if thet disliked its decisions.
Sparta had a unique institution - THE BOARD OF EPHORS (overseers), consisting of 5 men elected annually by the assembly. Any Spartan citizen could be a candidate. Originally they were to check the kings, but grradually they acquired additional functions: inittiatioon of legislation, summoning the assembly and Council, and judicial powers as well as a foreign policy role.
Due to the need of the Spartans to dominate the numerically-superior Messian HELOTS, Sparta became a GARRISON STATE. Children were reaered communally by the state. No coinage or luxury. Sparta was admired for the stability of its constitution and its military prowess. Service to the state subordinated the individual to the state. Austerity and duty admired.
ca. 560-550 B.C. - Sparta defeated Tegea; origins of the PELOPONNESIAN LEAGUE.
II. ATHENS: DEMOKRATIA OR RULE OF THE DEMOS OR PEOPLE
ca. 7th Cent B.C. - End of Monarchy. Aristocratic Polis. Athenian king lost power to aristocrats, who monopolized the magistracies. The state was governed by the AREOPAGUS, a council recruited from the former aristocratic magistrates. 3, later 9, ARCHONS, elected annually. After one year, they became members of the Council of the Areopagus. The Archons were elected by an assembly of adult male citizens.
621 B.C. - Draco codified & published the laws. The aim was to end the blood feuds between clans. It dealt mainly with homocide. It reduced the ability of the tribal aristocratic magistrates to interpret the law arbitrarily.
594 B.C. - Solon's Reforms Class warfare caused by an agrariar crisis and over-population was avoided by conciliation. Debt-ridden farmers who had lost their land wanted cancellation of debts and land redistribution. SOLON, one of the ARCHONS, was given special powers of arbitration. ECONOMIC REFORMS: Abolition of debt slavery. Cancellation of debts, but no land redistribution. He forbade the export of wheat and encouraged that of olive oil and wine. POLITICAL REFORMS: All Athenians whose fathers were citizens were citizens, plus a few immigrants. SOLON DIVIDED THE CITIZENS INTO FOUR GROUPS BASED ON INCOME FROM LAND. (Even merchants and atisans were deprived of certain political rights due to the basing full politcial rights on land ownership. Only the 2 richest groups could become Archons and members of the Council of Areopagus. The 3rd group could serve as Hoplites (soliders who bought their own weapons) and as members of the new Council of 400. The 4th group was exclude from the Archonship and the Areopagus, but it could vote on legislation and elect Archons nad members of the Council of 400. About half the population could vote but not hold office. POLITICAL RIGHTS NO LONGER BASED ON BIRTH BUT MORE ON LANDED WEALTH.
Solon established a COUNCIL OF 400, 100 chosen from each of the four tribes, to prepare the agenda for the assembly. It was to check the Areopagus.
Solon also create a "POPULAR" COURT OF APPEALS. All citizens had the right to sit on juries and decide cases on appeal from the magistrates. (In the 5th cent, almost all cases came before courts of paid jurors.) Noble magistrates no longer had the power to make legal decisions without appeal.
546-527 B.C. - Tyranny of Pisistratus A mercenary army enabled the nobleman PISISTRATUS to establish the first "tyranny" in Athens. He kept Solon's reforms, but he ruled by force and an appeal for popular support against his fellow-nobles. He banished many of his noble opponents, confiscated their land, and redistributed their land to farmers. He built temples and public works.
510 B.C. - Hippias, Pisistratus' son, driven from power with Spartan help. Attempt at oligarchic or aristocratic rule failed.
508 B.C. - Clisthenes' Refoms An aristocat he undermined his fellow-nobles. HE BROKE UP THE ANCESTRAL RIBAL SYSTEM, WHICH WAS THE BASIS OF NOBLE POWER. He deprived the old tribes of all political functions. All Athenians were divided into TEN new tribes. The basic unit was the deme, which took over the functions of local gov't. The demes were grouped into 30 sets of trittyes geograpically seperated from each other. The composition of the each tribe guaranteed that no one region would dominate. Because the tribes had common religious ceremonies and fought together, they diminished regional loyalty and personal loyalty to tribal leaders. CLISHENES SEPERATED RELIGIOUS AND KINSHIP TIES FROM POLITICAL ORGANIZATION, THEREBY REDUCING THE POWER OF THE NOBLES AND TRIBAL LEADERS.
CLISTHENES replaced Solon's Council of 400 with a Council of 500. It replacd the Areopagus in political power. All male citizens over 30 could serve for one year. No one could serve more than twice. Each of the 10 tribes elected 50 members of the Council annually. It prepared legislation for debate in the assembly.
CLISTHENES IS CONSIDERED "THE FATHER OF ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY". Although he did not change Solon's property qualifications for office, he dimished the influence of the nobility, increased the role of the assembly, and made the Coucil of 500 more important.
ca. 500 B.C. - Introduction of Ostracism The assembly voted once a year whether it wanted to ostracize anyone, i.e., exile him for ten years. If the vote was affirmative, the names of the candidates for exile were written on potsherds. The individual against whom a majority voted was exiled for ten years. The purpose of ostracism was to deter factional menances to democracy by the treat of ostracizing factional leaders.
487 B.C. - Archons were no longer elected but chosen by lot. Selection by lot became widespread in the 5th cent. A new BOARD OF GENERALS was created, with ten members, or one per tribe. The generals were elected annually by the assembly of citizens. Anyone could be reelected indinitely. This new office was very powerful. It was the basis of Pericles' power.
462 B.C. - Pericles extended Democracy In 457, the 3rd of Solon's groups, the HOPLITE CLASS, was made eligibe for the Archonship, hence the Areopagus. The 4th group was still excluded. Pay was given to the jurors, who were chosen by lot. The powers of the Areopagus were further reduced. Citizenship was limited to those who had 2 parents who were Athenian citizens.
ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY WAS EXTENDED IN THE 5TH CENTURY B.C. DUE TO THE NEED FOR ROWERS FOR THE FLEET, WHICH WAS NEEDED FOR THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE. THERE WAS AN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SEA-POWER, IMPERIALISM, AND DEMOCRACY. IN ADDITION, ARISTOCRATIC POLITICAL LEADERS USED POPULAR SUPPORT AND DEMOCRATIC REFORMS TO GAIN POLITICAL POWER AT THE EXPENSE OF THEIR ARISTOCRATIC RIVALS, e.g., PERICLES.
Athenian democracy was direct democracy not representative gov't. The assembly of citizens could be attended by any male citizens who could vote for laws, war and peace, and elect archons, members of the Coucil of 500, and generals. They could debate. The highest magistracies were closed to them, however.
Citizenship was jealously guarded. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded.
Popular participation in gov't was widespread since all decisions were approved by the assembly of citizens. Every judicial decision was subject to appeal to popular juries.
Athenian democracy was gov't by amateurs since most offices were chosen by lot. There was much rotation in office. All citizens were deemed competent to serve and participate. Most offices were only for one year.
There was no standing army, no police force, and no obvious way to coerce the people. The people tended to choose artistocratic leaders like Pericles for their military prowess and their ability to persuade in the assembly not simply due to birth and wealth.
All public officals were subject to scrutiny before taking office, could be called to account and remove from office during their tenure, and were subject to a compulsory exam and accounting at the end of their term. Most offices were only for one year.
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