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Western Civilization I page. |
I. BACKGROUND
GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY
- RUNS 720 MILES FROM THE ALPS TO THE SOUTHERN TIP OF THE PENINSULA.
- WIDEST IN THE NORTH.
- MOST OF THE PENINSULA IS NEVER MORE THAN 125 MILES WIDE.
- MOST OF ITALY ENJOYS A MILD MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE.
- THE ALPS MOUNTAINS IN THE NORTH BLOCK COLD WINDS.
- MAIN GEOGRAPHIC FEATURE IS APENNINE MOUNTAINS WHICH RUN DIAGONALLY ACROSS NORTHERN ITALY AND THEN TURN SOUTHWARD TO BISECT THE PENINSULA (THE BOOT).
- WEST - MOST PEOPLE LIVED ON THE WEST SIDE OF THE APENNINES WHERE THE LAND WAS MORE FERTILE THAN IN THE EAST.
- NORTH OF THE APENNINES IS THE FERTILE PO RIVER VALLEY (WAS HOME OF THE CELTIC PEOPLE KNOWN AS GAULS).
- CENTRAL PORTION - GOOD SOIL AND AMPLE WATER.
- SOUTH - POORER SOIL AND LESS WATER.
- HILLS OF ITALY ARE GENTLE ENOUGH FOR PASTEURING AND WOOD WAS PLENTIFUL (TWO ADVANTAGES OVER GREECE).
- THEY DID NOT ACT AS BARRIERS TO ISOLATE CITIES AS WAS THE CASE IN GREECE.
ORIGINS OF ROME
- BY 753 B.C. (TRADITIONAL FOUNDING OF ROME), THERE WERE CONSIDERABLE HABITATION ON AND NEAR THE SEVEN HILLS THAT SURROUND THE CITY ON THE TIBER RIVER.
- ROME IS LOCATED ON A FERTILE COASTAL PLAIN.
- THE TIBER RIVER PROVIDED FOR FOOD AND TRANSPORTATION.
- ABOUT 625 B.C., THE MARSHES BELOW THE HILLS WERE DRAINED, AND THE CENTRAL MARKETPLACE - THE FORUM WAS BUILT.
- EARLY ROME INFLUENCED BY:
1) ETRUSCANS
2) GREEKS
1) ETRUSCANS - DOMINATED EARLY ROME. THEY FIRST SETTLED NORTH OF ROME IN TUSCANY.
- THEY RULED THE ROMAN AREA FROM ABOUT 625 - 509 B.C.
- THEY WERE SOPHISTICATED, LITERATE AND TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED.
- THEY HAD VARIOUS TRADING PARTNERS INCLUDING GREEKS AND PHOENICIANS.
- THEY PASSED ON TO ROMANS THE ART OF TEMPLE BUILDING AS WELL AS THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEFS.
2) GREEKS - BY ABOUT 750 B.C. HAD ESTABLISHED ABOUT 50 POLEIS ON SOUTHERN AND WESTERN SHORES OF ITALY AND SICILY.
- SOUTHERN ITALY WAS CALLED "MAGNA GRAECIA" (GREAT GREECE).
- INFLUENCED BOTH ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS, e.g., WESTERN VERSION OF GREEK ALPHABET AS WELL AS ART.
II. CREATION OF ROMAN REPUBLIC
ETRUSCANS EXPELLED AROUND 509 B.C. AND REPUBLIC ESTABLISHED.
ESTABLISHMENT OF UNWRITTEN (OBSERVED PROCEDURES AND CUSTOMS) CONSTITUTION.
- THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS TO GOVERNMENT:
1) EXECUTIVES - CONSULS (TWO OFFICERS) WHO WERE SUPREME CIVIL AND MILITARY MAGISTRATES.
- WERE ELECTED ANNUALLY BY ASSEMBLY OF THE CENTURIES WHICH WAS THE ARMY.
- BESIDES THE ASSEMBLY OF THE CENTURIES, THE ASSEMBLY OF TRIBES WAS ANOTHER POLITICAL BODY AS WAS THE ASSEMBLY OF CURIAE. THE ASSEMBLY OF TRIBES BECAME THE MOST POWERFUL OF THE THREE ASSEMBLIES AND PASSED MOST OF THE MAJOR LAWS.
- CONSULS AND LOWER-RANKING OFFICERS, PRAETORS, POSSESSED IMPERIUM - POWER TO COMMAND TROOPS AND OTHER ASSIGNMENTS FROM THE SENATE.
2) SENATE - ADVISORY BODY OF ELDER STATESMEN.
- IN TIME TOOK CONTROL OF BOTH FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC POLICY.
- USUALLY CONSISTED OF 300 MEMBERS ELECTED FOR LIFE.
- DID NOT PASS LAWS IN THE REPUBLIC BUT APPOINTED COMMANDERS AND SET GENERAL DIRECTION OF THE STATE.
- WAS VERY CONSERVATIVE.
3) POPULAR ASSEMBLIES OF ALL CITIZENS.
- ROMAN SOCIETY WAS BASED ON THE FAMILY.
- THE FATHER'S POWER WAS SIMILAR TO THE STATE'S IMPERIUM.
- FAMILY WAS THE FOCUS OF POWER IN THE REPUBLIC PARTICULARLY AMONG THE LARGE UNIT - THE GENS OR CLAN (A GROUP OF RELATED FAMILIES).
- PATRICIANS, ABOUT 5-7% OF FAMILIES, WERE SOCIALLY AND LEGALLY SUPERIOR TO THE MAJORITY WHO WERE CALLED PLEBIANS.
STRUGGLE OF THE ORDERS (494 - 287 B.C.)
- STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE PATRICIANS AND PLEBIANS WHICH RESULTED IN PLEBIANS OBTAINING MORE POWER.
- 494 B.C. - PLEBIANS GRANTED RIGHT TO BE REPRESENTED BY TRIBUNES. IT BECAME A RELIGIOUS CRIME TO INJURE THE BODY OF A TRIBUNE. THEY WERE GRANTED SIGNIFICANT POWER.
- 450 B.C. - LAW OF THE TWELVE TABLETS WHICH CODIFIED PEOPLE'S TRADITIONAL RIGHTS. THIS LAW CLARIFIED PATRON-CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS.
- 445 B.C. - RIGHT OF INTERMARRIAGE BETWEEN PATRICIANS AND PLEBIANS WHICH EVENTUALLY LED TO AN ARISTOCRACY COMPRISED OF MEMBERS FROM BOTH CLASSES.
- 367 B.C. - AT LEAST ONE CONSUL MUST BE A PLEBIAN. ADDITIONALLY, IN THIS YEAR THERE WAS THE CREATION OF A PRAETOR - AN ASSISTANT CONSUL WHO ALSO HELD IMPERIUM. EVENTUALLY, THERE WERE 8 PRAETORS ELECTED EVERY YEAR BUT THERE WAS NEVER MORE THAN 2 CONSULS.
- 287 B.C. - DECISIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY OF TRIBES BECAME BINDING ON THE STATE WITHOUT FURTHER ACTION BY ANY OTHER BODY.
EARLY EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC
- ABOUT 493 B.C., ROMANS FORMED ALLIANCES WITH NEIGHBORS ON THE PLAIN OF LATIUM BECAUSE OF FEAR OF THE ETRUSCANS WHO HAD RECENTLY BEEN EXPELLED.
- EXPANSION WAS BOTH BY WARFARE AND DIPLOMACY.
- 390 B.C. - A SETBACK TO EXPANSION AS GAULS FROM THE PO VALLEY CAPTURED PART OF ROME AND DEMANDED RANSOM TO WITHDRAW.
- 280 B.C. - GREEKS OF MAGNA GRAECIA IN SOUTHERN ITALY APPEALED TO PYRRHUS OF EPIRUS.
- HIS TWO BATTLES LED TO VICTORY BUT AT A VERY HEAVY COST - "A PYRRHIC VICTORY."
- 265 B.C. - ROME CONTROLLED THE ENTIRE ITALIAN PENINSULA BUT NOT THE PO VALLEY.
- ROME FORMED A CONFEDERATE SYSTEM.
- RESIDENTS OF SOME COMMUNITIES WERE GRANTED ROMAN CITIZENSHIP.
- SOME RESIDENTS BECAME ROMAN CITIZENS BUT COULD NOT VOTE. THEY COULD INTER-MARRY WITH ROMAN CITIZENS AND HAD TO SUPPLY TROOPS TO THE ROMAN ARMY.
- SOCII - LOWER LEVEL OF PRIVILEGE - HAD TO SUPPLY TROOPS BUT WERE NOT CITIZENS.
- THIS CONFEDERATION GREATLY EXPANDED THE MANPOWER NEEDED BY ROME TO DOMINATE LARGER REGIONS.
- ROME WAS NO LONGER JUST THE ANCIENT CITY BUT NOW THE CONFEDERATION ALLIED TO IT.
PUNIC WARS
- CARTHAGE, ONCE A MAJOR NORTH AFRICAN CITY (LOCATED NEAR PRESENT DAY TUNIS) WAS FOUNDED BY THE PHOENICIANS ABOUT 700 B.C.
- CARTHAGE CONTROLLED CITIES IN NORTH AFRICA, PARTS OF SPAIN, CORSICA, SARDINIA, AND MUCH OF SICILY BY THE TIME ROME GAINED CONTROL OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA.
- CARTHAGE HAD BEEN THE LEADING NAVAL POWER OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
- FIRST PUNIC WAR (264 - 241 B.C.)
- THE NAME PUNIC COMES FROM THE LATIN WORD POENI (PHOENICIAN).
- FIRST WAR WAS STRUGGLE OVER SICILY. WHILE ROMANS SUFFERED HEAVY CASUALTIES, THEY WERE VICTORIOUS. IN ADDITION TO PAYING WAR REPARATIONS:
- CARTHAGE ABANDONED SICILY
- CARTHAGE ABANDONED SARDINIA
- CARTHAGE ABANDONED CORSICA
- SECOND PUNIC WAR (218 - 201 B.C.)
- BEGAN IN SPAIN WHERE ROME PROTESTED TO CARTHAGE OVER TREATMENT OF A TOWN FRIENDLY TO ROME, i.e., SAGUNTUM WHICH WAS IN CARTHAGINIAN TERRITORY.
- HANNIBAL, A CARTHAGINIAN GENERAL, SEIZED SAGUNTUM THUS BEGINNING THE SECOND WAR.
- 218 B.C. - HANNIBAL LED HIS ARMY ACROSS THE ALPS AND DOWN INTO ITALY.
- 216 B.C. - HANNIBAL WON HIS MOST BRILLIANT VICTORY AT CANNAE. DESPITE THIS VICTORY, HANNIBAL WAS UNABLE TO GET THE MAJORITY OF ROME'S ALLIES TO REVOLT AGAINST ROME. HE THUS DID NOT HAVE THE RESOURCES TO FOLLOW UP HIS VICTORY AT CANNAE.
- WHILE HANNIBAL WAS IN ITALY, THE ROMAN GENERAL SCIPIO FOUGHT AGAINST CARTHAGE IN SPAIN.
- 206 B.C. - SCIPIO CONTROLLED MOST OF SPAIN.
- 204 B.C. - SCIPIO LANDED IN AFRICA NEAR CARTHAGE FORCING HANNIBAL TO WITHDRAW FROM ITALIAN PENINSULA TO DEFEND CARTHAGE.
- 202 B.C. - BATTLE OF ZAMA (OUTSIDE OF CARTHAGE) IN WHICH SCIPIO WON THIS DECISIVE BATTLE AGAINST HANNIBAL.
- TREATY RESULTS:
- CARTHAGE HAD TO SURRENDER ALL OF ITS TERRITORY EXCEPT AREA AROUND THE CITY.
- CARTHAGE COULD NOT RAISE AN ARMY WITHOUT ROME'S PERMISSION.
- CARTHAGE HAD TO PAY A HUGE WAR REPARATION.
- THIRD PUNIC WAR (149 - 146 B.C.)
- BITTER ANTI-CARTHAGINIAN SENTIMENT IN ROMAN SENATE WAS LED BY A FORMER CONSUL, MARCUS CATO. HE PROVOKED WAR AFTER CARTHAGE HAD RAISED AN ARMY TO PROTECT ITSELF AGAINST A NEARBY AGGRESSOR.
- CARTHAGE WAS DESTROYED (ALTHOUGH THE SOIL WAS NOT SALTED) AND BECAME PART OF THE ROMAN PROVINCE CALLED AFRICA.
EASTERN WARS
- WAR AGAINST MACEDONIA
- 220's B.C. ROME BEGAN TO INTERVENE ALONG THE COASTAL AREAS OF ILLYRIA (YUGOSLAVIA). PHILIP V, RULER OF MACEDONIA, FORMED AN ALLIANCE WITH HANNIBAL AFTER THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. THE ROMANS SENT A FORCE TOWARD GREECE TO FRUSTRATE THIS ALLIANCE.
- THUS PHILIP, UNWILLINGLY, OPENED THE BEGINNING OF ROMAN EXPANSION EASTWARD WHILE BRINGING HELLENISTIC CULTURE TO ROME.
- THIS WAR AGAINST PHILIP WAS THE FIRST OF FOUR WARS BETWEEN ROME AND MACEDONIA.
- RESULTS OF EASTERN WARS
- MACEDONIA LOST TO ROME AND WAS MADE A PROVINCE IN 146 B.C.
- 146 B.C. - MOST OF SOUTHERN GREECE WAS ADDED TO THIS ROMAN PROVINCE.
- 129 B.C. - ROME CREATED THE PROVINCE OF ASIA BASED ON THE TERRITORY OF PERGAMUM.
- GREEK INFLUENCE CONTINUED TO POUR INTO ROME.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
- GOVERNORS OF PROVINCES WERE APPOINTED BY THE SENATE AND RULED THEIR PROVINCES WITH ABSOLUTE POWER.
- REBELLIONS WERE NOT COMMON.
- PROVINCES GAVE THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE REPUBLIC, i.e., SOME PAID MONEY; OTHERS FOOD.
- ROMAN TAX COLLECTORS WERE CALLED PUBLICANI WHO CAME FROM THE NONSENATORIAL CLASS KNOWN AS EQUESTRIANS WHO PAID THE STATE A FIXED SUM IN ADVANCE AND MADE THEIR PROFIT BY COLLECTING IN EXCESS OF WHAT THEY PAID.
- NATIVES OF THE PROVINCES WERE HELPLESS AGAINST THE PUBLICANI ALTHOUGH THE GOVERNOR WAS SUPPOSE TO PROTECT THE LOCAL INHABITANTS.
- THESE PUBLICANI (EQUESTRIANS) ALSO FORMED COMPANIES TO BUILD ROADS AND AQUEDUCTS AS WELL AS MANAGED BUSINESSES.
ROMAN FAMILY
- FATHER WAS ABSOLUTE OWNER OF WHOLE FAMILY. EVEN MARRIED CHILDREN STILL BELONGED TO HIM. THE FATHER COULD EVEN LEGALLY EXECUTE HIS CHILDREN (RARELY EVER DONE).
- WOMEN'S ROLE WAS VERY SECONDARY TO MEN'S.
- THEY COULD NOT HOLD OFFICE OR VOTE.
- UNLIKE ATHENS IN CLASSICAL GREECE, THEY WERE NOT RESTRICTED TO A SEPARATE PART OF THE HOUSE. ALSO, THEY ATTENDED PUBLIC FUNCTIONS MUCH MORE FREQUENTLY THAN CLASSICAL ATHENIAN WOMEN.
- SOME RIGHTS WERE GAINED DURING THE LATE REPUBLIC AND THE EMPIRE, e.g., PROPERTY RIGHTS.
RELIGION
ROMANS WORSHIPPED MANY GODS (POLYTHEISTIC) IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
- FATHER LED FAMILY IN WORSHIP OF HOUSEHOLD GODS, e.g.,
JANUS - GOD PROTECTING DOORWAY
VESTA - GOD OF THE HEARTH
- PUBLIC RELIGION - PRIESTHOODS WERE MAINLY POLITICAL OFFICES FROM WHICH WOMEN WERE EXCLUDED. SELECT WOMEN DID HAVE THE HONOR OF BEING VESTAL VIRGINS (WHO GUARDED THE SACRED FIRE OF VESTA THAT GUARDED THE HEARTH OF THE STATE).
- ROMAN GODS WERE OFTEN GREEK DEITIES WITH ROMAN NAMES, e.g.,
GREEK GOD ROMAN GOD
ZEUS = JUPITER
HERA = JUNO
ATHENA = MINERVA
HERMES = MERCURY
POSEIDON = NEPTUNE
APHRODITE = VENUS
ARES = MARS
EDUCATION
- UNLIKE GREECE, THERE WAS NO PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM.
- SOME OF THE WEALTHIER CITIZENS SENT THEIR CHILDREN TO A FEE-PAYING SCHOOL.
- BOYS MIGHT THEN ATTEND A SECONDARY STAGE OF SCHOOLING.
- THE MASS OF THE PEOPLE WERE UNSCHOOLED AND ILLITERATE.
EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC LITERATURE
- TOOK VERY LONG TO DEVELOP IN THE REPUBLIC.
- QUINTUS ENNIUS (239 - 169 B.C.) - FOUNDER OF LITERATURE WRITTEN IN LATIN (HE WAS NOT A ROMAN BUT AN ITALIAN WHO LIVED NEAR TARENTUM). HIS MOST IMPORTANT WORK - ANNALES WHICH WAS A PATRIOTIC HISTORICAL POEM.
- LATIN PLAYWRIGHTS INCLUDED PLAUTUS (250 - 140 B.C.) AND TERENCE (190 - 159 B.C.).
- IMITATED GREEK NEW COMEDY (ROMANS DID NOT APPROVE OF OLD COMEDY WHICH OFTEN LAMPOONED POLITICIANS).
- AS A HISTORIAN, ONE OF THE GREATEST WAS POLYBIUS (200 - 118 B.C.) WHO WAS NOT ROMAN BUT GREEK AND WHO WAS DEPORTED TO ROME AS A HOSTAGE.
- HE WROTE MUCH CONCERNING THE PUNIC AND GREEK WARS.
- STRESSED THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY TO HISTORY.
- HE REVIVED THE HIGH HISTORICAL WRITING STANDARDS OF HERODOTUS AND THUCYDIDES.
LATER ROMAN REPUBLIC LITERATURE
- LUCRETIUS WAS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL POETS OF THE LATER REPUBLIC. HE ADOPTED THE THEORY OF EPICURUS THAT EVERYTHING IN THE WORLD, INCLUDING OUR BODIES AND SOULS, IS MADE OF ATOMS THAT WILL RECIRCULATE THROUGH THE UNIVERSE.
HE ACHIEVED ONLY MARGINAL SUCCESS IN HAVING THIS THEORY ACCEPTED AS MANY ROMANS STILL PREFERRED STOICISM WHICH PREACHED DEVOTION TO DUTY.
- CATULLUS - ANOTHER FIRST CENTURY B.C. POET.
- HE WROTE POETRY OF A MORE PERSONAL NATURE.
- MANY OF HIS POEMS ARE ADDRESSED TO HIS MISTRESS CLODIA (A VERY PROMISCUOUS WOMAN).
- HIS FEELINGS ARE EXPRESSED FRANKLY WHICH WAS THE EXCEPTION IN A SOCIETY THAT DID NOT LOOK AT DISPLAYS OF EMOTION AS VIRTUOUS.
- CICERO - FIRST CENTURY B.C. WRITER WHO WAS CONSIDERED THE MOST VERSATILE WRITER OF HIS TIME.
- HIS ORATIONS, ESSAYS, AND LETTERS ARE AMONG THE BEST SOURCES OF HISTORY OF THE LATE REPUBLIC.
- FIRST OF HIS FAMILY TO OBTAIN A CONSULSHIP.
- WAS EXECUTED BY THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE FOR HAVING OPPOSED MARK ANTONY.
III. DECLINE OF REPUBLIC
- LONG PERIODS OF MILITARY SERVICE BECAUSE OF CONTINUED WARFARE IMPOVERISHED MANY ROMAN PEASANTS.
- THE FLOOD OF NEW BOOTY FROM WARS IN THE EAST, DUE TO WAR-PROFITEERING, WAS BROUGHT BACK TO ROME BUT WAS UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED AMONG THE WEALTHY AND NOT THE POOR.
- A GREAT INCREASE OF SLAVES OCCURRED ON THE ITALIAN PENINSULA WHICH DECREASED DEMANDS FOR THE LABOR OF MOST SMALL INDEPENDENT FARMERS.
- MANY SMALL FARMERS LOST THEIR LAND TO THE LATIFUNDIA WHICH WERE LARGE ESTATES OWNED BY THE WEALTHY.
- SOME OF THE LATIFUNDIA SPECIALIZED IN WINE GROWING WHICH REQUIRED SUBSTANTIAL CAPITAL THAT SMALL FARMERS DID NOT HAVE.
- THE REPUBLIC BEGAN TO SUFFER SERIOUS MANPOWER SHORTAGES IN THE ARMY BECAUSE ONLY MEN WHO HAD ENOUGH MONEY TO BUY THEIR OWN ARMS COULD BE RECRUITED.
THE GRACCHI BROTHERS
- TIBERIUS GRACCHUS, THE OLDER OF TWO BROTHERS IN A PROMINENT ROMAN FAMILY, BECAME A TRIBUNE - HE WANTED LAND RECLAIMED FROM THE WEALTHY TO BE GIVEN TO DISPOSSED FARMERS AND LIMIT THE LAND AMOUNT THAT ANYONE (ESPECIALLY THE WEALTHY) COULD OWN.
- HE WAS SUCCESSFUL IN GETTING LAND DISTRIBUTION BUT WAS ASSASSINATED IN 133 B.C. WHEN HE RAN FOR RE-ELECTION AS TRIBUNE. RUNNING FOR RE-ELECTION WAS A BREACH OF CUSTOM AND CERTAIN SENATORS FEARED HE WOULD SEIZE POWER (THIS WAS NOT TRUE).
- HIS BROTHER, GAIUS, BECAME A TRIBUNE IN 123 B.C.
- HE SIDED WITH TAX COLLECTORS (EQUESTRIANS) OVER PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS.
- HE FURTHERED HIS BROTHER'S PROGRAM OF RELOCATING DISPLACED FARMERS.
- HE PROPOSED ROMAN CITIZENSHIP TO PEOPLE IN RURAL AREAS (NOT SUCCESSFUL).
- HE WAS ACCUSED WRONGLY OF PLANNING A REVOLUTION, WAS HUNTED DOWN, AND HAD HIS OWN SLAVE KILL HIM BEFORE GOVERNMENT FORCES COULD CAPTURE HIM IN 121 B.C.
GAIUS MARIUS
- THE SENATE CONTINUED TO BECOME MORE DISUNITED AS THEY BROKE INTO CLIQUES FAVORING VARIOUS WARLORDS.
- GAIUS MARIUS' REPUTATION GREW AS HE FIRST DEFEATED A KING IN NORTH AFRICA AND THEN DROVE BACK GERMANIC TRIBES TRYING TO MOVE INTO NORTHERN ITALY.
- HE BECAME CONSUL FOR FIVE CONSECUTIVE YEARS AND DOMINATED POLITICS FROM 107 - 100 B.C.
- IN ORDER TO RAISE LARGE NUMBERS OF MEN FOR THESE GERMAN WARS, HE ABOLISHED THE REQUIREMENT THAT A SOLDIER MUST OWN AT LEAST A MODEST AMOUNT OF PROPERTY AND HE ALSO ACCEPTED VOLUNTEERS INSTEAD OF JUST DRAFTING MEN.
- THE ARMY THUS BECAME COMPOSED LARGELY OF POOR MEN WHO SERVED THEIR COMMANDER; RECEIVED BOOTY FROM HIM; RELIED ON HIM AS THEIR MAIN PATRON, AND EXPECTED TO OBTAIN A GRANT OF LAND WHEN DISCHARGED.
- MARIUS THUS CONVERTED THE ARMY INTO AN INSTRUMENT FOR AMBITIOUS COMMANDERS THROUGH THE REST OF THE REPUBLIC AND THROUGHOUT THE HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
- THUS THE ARMY BECAME MORE LOYAL TO COMMANDERS THAN TO ROME.
WAR WITH THE ITALIANS
- 91 B.C. - ITALIAN ALLIES OF ROME REVOLTED TO OBTAIN ROMAN CITIZENSHIP. BY 88 B.C., THE REVOLTS ENDED AND ROMAN CITIZENSHIP WAS EXTENDED TO MANY ITALIAN ALLIES.
LUCIUS SULLA - BECAME THE NEXT WARLORD AFTER MARIUS TO RULE ROME.
- 88 B.C. - SULLA INVADED THE CITY OF ROME TO PUT DOWN CIVIL UNREST (FIRST INVASION OF ROME BY INTERNAL FORCES). UPON HIS RETURN FROM A WAR AGAINST THE KINGDOM OF PONTUS (ASIA MINOR) IN 82 B.C., HE HAD HIMSELF NAMED DICTATOR WITHOUT LIMIT OF TIME.
- HE WEAKENED TWO GROUPS WHICH HE THOUGHT HAD USURPED THE POWER OF THE SENATE:
1) THE TRIBUNES WHO HAD MADE THE ASSEMBLY OF TRIBES STRONGER.
2) STRONG GENERALS WHO HAD USED THE LOYALTY OF THEIR ARMY TO GAIN POLITICAL LEVERAGE.
- HE RAISED THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE SENATE TO ABOUT 600 IN AN ATTEMPT TO ENFORCE MORE CONSERVATISM ON THE REPUBLIC.
- 79 B.C. - HE RESIGNED AS DICTATOR.
- HE FELT HE HAD PUT THE SENATE MORE FIRMLY IN CONTROL.
RISE OF POMPEY
- FIRST GAINED MILITARY REPUTATION IN SPAIN AND LATER AGAINST A REBELLION OF SLAVES LED BY SPARTICUS.
- THIS REVOLT WAS CRUSHED IN 71 B.C. WITH THE COMBINED FORCES OF TWO COMMANDERS - POMPEY AND MARCUS CRASSUS.
- 70 B.C. - POMPEY AND CRASSUS DEMANDED AND RECEIVED BOTH CONSULSHIPS.
- BOTH RESIGNED IN 69 B.C. AND CONTINUED TO WIN MILITARY CONQUESTS. POMPEY WAS VERY SUCCESSFUL AGAINST SULLA'S OLD ENEMY, MITHRIDATES, IN ASIA MINOR.
- DURING POMPEY'S ABSENCE, MARCUS CICERO BECAME THE CHIEF NON-MILITARY STATESMAN IN ROME.
- 63 B.C. - LUCIUS CATALINE FORMED A CONSPIRACY TO SEIZE THE STATE AND MURDER THE CONSULS (ONE OF WHOM WAS CICERO). CICERO FRUSTRATED THIS PLOT.
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE
- GAIUS JULIUS CEASER WAS A DESCENDENT OF A PATRICIAN FAMILY.
- HE RETURNED TO ROME FROM SPAIN WHERE HE WAS GOVERNOR. TO OVERCOME HEAVY DEBT BORROWED FOR MILITARY CAMPAIGNS, HE HOPED TO WIN THE CONSULSHIP IN 59 B.C. AND THEN OBTAIN PROVINCIAL COMMAND WHICH WOULD PROVIDE INCOME FROM THE SPOILS OF WAR TO PAY OFF HIS DEBTS.
- A SMALL FACTION IN THE SENATE DID NOT WANT HIM TO ACHIEVE HIS GOALS AND TRIED TO BLOCK HIM FROM OBTAINING THIS COMMAND.
- POMPEY, AT THE SAME TIME, WAS REFUSED BY THE SENATE THE LAND GRANTS FOR HIS MEN WHO HAD SUCCESSFULLY FOUGHT IN ASIA MINOR.
- 59 B.C. - JULIUS CEASER PROPOSED THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE CONSISTING OF:
1) CEASER
2) POMPEY
3) CRASSUS
- IMMEDIATE RESULTS
- ASSEMBLY OF TRIBES SUPPORT THE TRIUMVIRATE AGAINST SOME SENATORIAL OBJECTIONS.
- POMPEY WAS AWARDED LAND GRANTS FOR HIS SOLDIERS.
- CEASER WAS GIVEN COMMAND OVER:
1) CISALPINE GAUL (THE PO VALLEY)
2) TRANSALPINE GAUL (PROVENCE - SOUTHERN FRANCE)
3) COAST OF ILLYRIA
- CEASER EXPANDED ROMAN TERRITORY OUTSIDE OF THE PROVINCES DURING HIS GALLIC WARS (58 - 50 B.C.).
- HE BROUGHT INTO ROME THE WHOLE AREA OF MODERN FRANCE AND BELGIUM.
- POMPEY EVENTUALLY GAINED COMMAND OF THE TWO PROVINCES OF SPAIN (ALTHOUGH HE CONTINUED TO LIVE NEAR ROME).
- CRASSUS EVENTUALLY GAINED COMMAND OF SYRIA WHERE HE FOUGHT AGAINST THE PARTHIAN KINGDOM.
- 53 B.C. - CRASSUS WAS KILLED IN BATTLE.
BREAK BETWEEN JULIUS CEASER AND THE SENATE
- 49 B.C. - JULIUS CEASER PLANNED TO RETURN TO ROME FROM GAUL AND SEEK THE CONSULSHIP IN 48 B.C. MANY IN THE SENATE FEARED HE WOULD BECOME A PERMANENT DICTATOR.
- THE SENATE ESTABLISHED MARTIAL LAW AND ORDERED POMPEY TO COMMAND THE ARMIES OF ROME AGAINST CEASER.
- THE SENATE ALSO THREATENED TO KILL ANY TRIBUNE WHO OPPOSED THIS LAW.
- JANUARY, 49 B.C. JULIUS CEASER CROSSED THE RUBICON RIVER (A TINY STREAM SEPARATING ITALY FROM CISALPINE GAUL) AND INVADED HIS OWN COUNTRY.
- HIS OWN MEN SUPPORTED HIM AND MANY MORE JOINED HIM ON HIS MARCH TOWARD ROME.
- POMPEY AND HIS FOLLOWERS FLED TO GREECE.
- 48 B.C. - CEASER WON A DECISIVE BATTLE AGAINST FOLLOWERS OF POMPEY AT PHARSALUS IN THESSALY.
- POMPEY ESCAPED TO EGYPT BUT WAS MURDERED BY ADVISERS OF THE PHARAOH.
- 48 B.C. - JULIUS CEASER ALSO REACHED EGYPT IN THIS YEAR WHERE HE SETTLED A DISPUTE BETWEEN CLEOPATRA (VII) AND HER BROTHER IN FAVOR OF CLEOPATRA.
- SHE WAS A DESCENDENT OF PTOLEMY (ONE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S GENERALS).
- AFTER AN AFFAIR BETWEEN JULIUS CEASER AND CLEOPATRA, HE RETURNED TO BATTLE AND THEN TO ROME IN 46 B.C.
JULIUS CEASER'S RULE
- JULIUS CEASER ASSUMED POSITION OF DICTATOR AND CONSUL.
- 44 B.C. - HAD HIMSELF NAMED DICTATOR FOR LIFE.
- HE REWARDED HIS FOLLOWERS WITH PUBLIC OFFICES.
- HE RAISED MEMBERSHIP IN THE SENATE TO 900 ALTHOUGH FROM THIS TIME ONWARD, THE SENATE LOST ITS FORMAL AUTHORITY AS THE BULWARK OF THE STATE.
- HE RAISED THE NUMBER OF PRAETORS TO 16.
- HE DIVIDED ALL OF ITALY INTO MUNICIPAL AREAS.
- HE SETTLED MANY OF HIS SOLDIERS IN THE COLONIES.
- HE EXTENDED ROMAN CITIZENSHIP INTO SOME OF THE PROVINCES.
- HE ESTABLISHED A 365 DAY CALENDAR (WITH A LEAP YEAR) BASED ON OLD EGYPTIAN SYSTEM. THIS JULIAN CALENDAR LASTED UNTIL 1582 WHEN POPE GREGORY XIII REVISED IT.
DEATH OF JULIUS CEASER
- ASSASSINATED ON MARCH 15, 44 B.C.
- TWO OF THE LEADING CONSPIRATORS WERE MARCUS BRUTUS AND GAIUS CASSIUS.
- HIS AUTOCRATIC RULE WAS HATED BY THE UPPER CLASS WHO WANTED TO OBTAIN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP IN THE TRADITIONAL MANNER RATHER THAN BE APPOINTED BY JULIUS CEASER TO A POSITION OF PROMINENCE.
IV. END OF THE REPUBLIC
- ONE OF JULIUS CEASER'S FOLLOWERS WHO REFUSED TO YIELD POWER AFTER CEASER'S ASSASSINATION WAS MARCUS ANTONIUS (MARK ANTONY) WHO TRIED TO TAKE OVER THE PROVINCIAL COMMAND OF CISALPINE GAUL EVEN THOUGH THE SENATE HAD ASSIGNED THE POSITION TO SOMEONE ELSE.
- AMONG THE COMMANDERS THAT THE SENATE RECRUITED TO OPPOSE ANTONY WAS GAIUS OCTAVIUS (OCTAVIAN) - JULIUS CEASER'S GRANDNEPHEW AND ADOPTED SON. HE REFERRED TO HIMSELF AS CEASER.
- 43 B.C. - OCTAVIAN AND ANTONY FORMED AN ALLIANCE. THEY ALSO FORMED A PARTNERSHIP WITH A LESSER COMMANDER NAME LEPIDUS. THUS A POLITICAL UNION WAS FORMED THAT BECAME KNOWN AS THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE:
1) OCTAVIAN
2) ANTONY
3) LEPIDUS
- THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE INVADED ROME (AS SULLA HAD DONE EARLIER) AND MADE THEMSELVES MILITARY RULERS.
- BRUTUS AND CASSIUS, LACKING POPULAR SUPPORT, WENT TO THE EAST TO GAIN CONTROL OF THE PROVINCES OF SYRIA AND MACEDONIA.
- 42 B.C. - BATTLE OF PHILIPPI IN NORTHERN GREECE IN WHICH THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE DEFEATED FORCES OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS.
- TROOPS OF THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE WERE REWARDED WITH REDISTRIBUTION OF LAND IN ITALY.
- ENEMIES OF THE TRIUMVIRATE WERE PURGED, e.g., CICERO.
- 32 B.C. OCTAVIAN AND ANTONY BROKE WITH EACH OTHER (LEPIDUS HAD BEEN FORCED INTO RETIREMENT) OVER ANTONY HAVING GRANTED TO CLEOPATRA AND THEIR CHILDREN EASTERN TERRITORIES BELONGING TO ROME.
- 31 B.C. - AT THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM (WESTERN-COAST OF GREECE) OCTAVIAN'S FORCES DEFEATED FORCES OF ANTONY. ANTONY WITHDREW TO EGYPT.
- 30 B.C. - ANTONY COMMITTED SUICIDE AS OCTAVIAN'S FORCES ADVANCED ON ALEXANDRIA. CLEOPATRA SUBSEQUENTLY COMMITTED SUICIDE WHEN SHE LEARNED OCTAVIAN PLANNED TO BRING HER TO ROME AS A PRISONER. HER DEATH ENDED THE LAST MACEDONIAN KINGDOM AND THEREFORE THE HELLENISTIC AGE.
- THE ROMAN REPUBLIC ENDED ABOUT THIS TIME WITH THE FINAL MILITARY TRIUMPH OF OCTAVIAN OVER HIS INTERNAL ENEMIES.